L  I  B  RAR.Y 

OF   THE 

U  N  IVER.SITY 
Of    ILLINOIS 


...THE. 


Wonder  •  City. 


...BY... 


EUGEN  SEEGER. 


CHICAGO : 
1893- 


Copyright  1893 
By  EUGEN  SEEGER. 


Published  by 

The  Geo.  Gregory  Printing  Company 

123-125  La  Salle  Avenue 

Chicago 


73 


• 


5  i 

i 


310253 


MW 


PREFACE. 


To  compress  the  history  of  Chicago  into  four  hundred  and 
fifty  pages  is  no  easy  task.  With  what  success  this  has  been 
done  in  "  CHICAGO,  THE  WONDER  CITY,"  the  reader  must 
judge. 

It  has  of  late  become  quite  a  lucrative  business  to  write  his- 
tories of  cities  and  interweave  them  with  detailed  biographies 
of  their  wealthier  citizens.  The  present  volume  was  not 
written  on  that  plan.  It  is  a  history  of  Chicago,  not  a  series 
of  biographical  notices  of  men  whom  the  city's  rapid  and 
enormous  growth  has  lifted  into  prominence.  Nature  designed 
the  site  of  the  city  for  a  great  metropolis,  but  no  man  or  set 
of  men  has  made  Chicago.  Chicago  has  made  many  men, 
but  it  is  the  great  body  of  the  people,  the  industrial  and  indus- 
trious middle  classes  that  have  brought  about  the  greatness  of 
Chicago. 

Since  the  body  of  the  book  was  written,  it  has,  in  true 
Chicago  fashion,  been  overtaken  by  some  important  events, 
notably  the  pardoning  of  the  anarchists,  the  decision  in  regard 
to  Sunday  opening  of  the  World's  Fair  and  the  estimation  of 
the  present  population  of  the  city,  based  on  the  figures  given 
in  the  new  city  directory.  This  volume  contains  five  hundred 
and  forty  thousand  names,  which  would  under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances represent,  according  to  the  usual  methods  of 
computation,  over  two  million  people,  but  owing  to  condi- 
tions created  by  the  World's  Fair  this  basis  of  calculation  is 
undoubtedly  too  large,  and  it  is  probable  the  two  million  mark 
has  not  been  reached  yet. 

*/ 

On  June  26,  1893,  John  P.  Altgeld,  the  present  governor  of 
Illinois,  added  perhaps  the  final  chapter  to  the  anarchist  case 


by  granting  absolute  pardon  to  the  three  men  sent  to  the 
penitentiary  in  1887 — Fielden  and  Schwab  to  life  terms  and 
Oscar  Neebe  to  a  fifteen-year  term.  On  the  question  of  the 
pardon  itself  there  has  been  but  little  discussion,  most  people 
believing  that  the  clemency  they  themselves  prayed  for  should 
be  extended  to  them;  but  the  manner  of  the  pardon  is  loudly 
and  well-nigh  universally  condemned.  The  prisoners  peti- 
tioned for  mercy- — they  were  given  a  vindication.  Governor 
Altgeld  explained  his  action  in  a  carefully  prepared  message 
of  seventeen  thousand  words,  and  based  his  pardon  on  the 
grounds  of  a  packed  and  incompetent  jury,  a  prejudiced  and 
unfair  judge  and  the  failure  of  the  State  to  establish  the  guilt 
of  the  prisoners.  Not  content  with  placing  the  crown  of 
martyrdom  on  the  heads  of  the  men  convicted  of  a  heinous 
offense,  the  governor  saw  fit  to  go  out  of  his  way  to  attack  a 
co-ordinate  branch  of  the  government,  to  impugn  the  honor 
of  a  judge  of  untarnished  reputation  and  insolently  to  over- 
ride the  decisions  of  not  only  the  lower  courts  but  also  of 
the  state  Supreme  Court.  For  this  action  on  the  part  of  the 
governor  the  people  of  Illinois  were  entirely  unprepared.  An 
official  utterance  such  as  this  pardon  of  the  governor,  is  well 
calculated  to  shatter  the  confidence  of  the  people  either  in  the 
wisdom  of  their  laws  and  the  justice  of  their  execution  or  in 
the  competency  of  iheir  chief  executive.  The  isolated  posi- 
tion of  Gov.  Altgeld  is  the  only  redeeming  feature  of  the 
situation. 

The  decision  of  the  United  States  Court  of  Appeals  per- 
mitting the  opening  of  the  World's  Fair  on  Sunday,  was  a 
victory  for  the  liberal  element,  and  it  is  a  matter  for  congratu- 
lation that  the  decent  and  orderly  behavior  of  the  Sunday 
crowds  is  fast  reconciling  to  the  new  order  of  things  those 
who  had  thought  that  a  study,  on  Sunday,  of  human  progress 
and  achievements  would  necessarily  prove  a  desecration  of 
that  day.  The  Fair  is  already  a  success  from  every  point 
of  view — even  from  the  financial  one,  conservative  judges 


VI 


estimating  that  shareholders  will  be  reimbursed  the  larger  part 
of  their  contributions. 

The  facts  given  in  the  chapter  on  the  '48ers  are  largely 
taken  from  an  essay  by  Emil  Dietzsch,  himself  a  '48er  and  a 
keen  observer  withal. 

The  photographs  of  the  descedants  of  the  Algonquin  Indians 
who  played  such  an  important  part  in  the  early  history  of 
Chicago,  were  taken  by  Grabill  (113  Monroe  street),  who 
visited  the  west  for  this  purpose. 

The  particular  acknowledgments  of  the  author  are  due  to 
Mr.  Robert  Kennicott  Reilly  for  help  in  arranging  and  compil- 
ing parts  of  the  work  and  assistance  in  editing  it. 

EUGEN  SEEGER. 
July  4,  1893. 


VII 


e 

e    c 
t:   "5 


OF  THE 
UNIYLKSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
Preface    5 

Early  History. — PART  ONE. — A  chapter  from  Wayback — The 
Indians — French  Navigators  sail  through  the  Straits  of  Belle 
Isle  and  discover  Canada  —  Cartier,  Champlain,  Nicolet, 
Perrot — New  France —  The  first  victims  of  the  white  con- 
querors— Jolliet  and  Marquette — Bitter  conflicts  in  the  land 
of  the  Illini  —  An  Indian  Jeanne  d'Arc — Robert  Cavelier 
and  his  conquests— Dismal  failure  of  the  French  coloniza- 
tion scheme — Chicagou,  the  Garlic  River i — 38 

PART  Two. — The  rule  of  the  English — Emigration  of  the  French 
— The  Pontiac  War — A  fateful  love  intrigue — Pontiac's  tragic 
end — The  Americans  take  the  helm 39 — 44 

Chicago.  Early  documents — A  miscarriage  in  land  speculation 
— The  earliest  settlers — Erection  of  Fort  Dearborn — Tecum- 
seh — Massacre  of  Fort  Dearborn — Tedious  development  of 
the  village —  Black  Hawk —  End  of  Indian  War  in  Illinois  and 
beginning  of  the  rapid  development  of  the  future  metropolis  45 — 88 

The  City,  Chicago 89 

Chicago  as  a  commercial  center  before    the  fire — The  industrial 

develpment 91 

Chicago's  Progress.  Early  German  settlers — The  Forty-eight- 
ers — Social  and  military  growth  in  the  Fifties — Beer  riots — 
Americans  and  Germans  unite  in  opposing  slavery — Early 
breweries  —  Douglas  and  know-nothingism  —  Underground 
railroad — Chicago's  part  in  the  war  of  the  rebellion 105. .  120 

The  Chicago  Fire 121 

The  catastrophe  of  October  8th  and  9th 125 

The  beginning  of  the  great  fire  on  the  West  Side 127 

The  destruction  of  the  business  center  of  Chicago 131 

Street  scenes  during  the  fire 142 

The  burning  of  the  North  Side 148 

On  the  "Sands" 153 

A  woman's  story  of  the  fire 157 

Scenes  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 162 

xi 


On  the  prairie 169 

Incidents 171 

A  walk  through  the  ruins 178 

Action  of  the  police 182 

The  fire  department 184 

Losses  and  insurance 187 

Chicago's  Architectural  Development 193 

Chicago's  Art  Development 212 

The  Public  Library 232 

The  Labor  Movement.     History  of  the  Eight-hour  agitation 247 

The  Chicago  Anarchists 254 

The  Cronin  Case 272 

Chicago.— The  Main  Exhibit 300 

Libraries,  Educational  and  Charitable  Institutions 324 

The  Chicago  Press 331 

Germans  and  German  Influence  in  Chicago 343 

Population 353 

Trade,  Commerce  and  Manufactures 356 

Miscellaneous  Information.  Chicago's  municipal  resources^ 
Statistics — Public  Schools — Municipal  Health  Department — 
The  Drainage  Channel— The  City  Government 372 — 382 

The  World's  Fair 383 


xn 


IARY 
OF  THE 
UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


Early  History. 

PART  ONE. 


^ 


. 
A  Chapter  from  Wayback—  The  Indians—  French  Navigators  sail  through  the  Straits 


of  Belle  Isle  and  discover  Canada—  Cartier,  Champlain,  Nicolet,  Perrot—  New 
France—  The  First  Victims  of  the  White  Conquerors—  Jolliet  and  Marquette— 
Bitter  Conflicts  in  the  Land  of  the  Illini—  An  Indian  Jeanne  d'Arc—  Robert 
Cavelier  and  his  Conquests—  Dismal  Failure  of  the  French  Colonization 
Schemes—  Chicagou,  The  Garlic  River. 

From  the  time  of  the  great  flood  to  a  later  but  equally 
indefinite  period,  the  territory  comprising  the  present 
state  of  Illinois  was  the  basin  of  a  great  inland  sea,  for 
Lake  Michigan  formerly  extended  southward  far  beyond  its 
present  shores. 

Later  through  the  parting  waters  broke  the  primeval 
forests  with  their  clumsy  inhabitants  :  the  mastadon  filled  the 
swampy  desert  with  its  hoarse  bellowing,  fat  and  self-satisfied 
saurians  lumbered  complacently  about  in  the  rank  and  slimy 
vegetation  while  the  primeval  bird,  the  monstrous  archas- 
opteryx,  lurched  lazily  through  the  sultry  air. 

It  is  as  unimportant  as  it  is  impossible  to  determine  how 
long  this  idyllic  period  lasted,  but  finally  the  future  of  this 
awkward,  earliest  creation  lay  all  behind  it  and  it  disappeared 
from  the  scenes  of  the  world-stage.  Afterwards,  and  heaven 
only  knows  how  long  afterwards,  the  red  man  made  his 
entrance,  coming  probably  from  the  west  or  southwest,  from 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  or  the  Pacific  coast;  but  over  what  roads 
and  under  what  circumstances  no  man  can  tell. 


The  first  reliable  information  about  the  northwest  and 
its  inhabitants  dates  from  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century  and  comes  from  the  brave  French  discoverers  who 
made  exploring  trips  from  Canada  throughout  the  region. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Iroquois,  Hurons  and  Winne- 
bagoes  (the  Winnebagoes  belong  to  the  Sioux  or  Dakota 
family)  the  Indians  who  at  that  time  peopled  the  northwest 
belonged  to  the  great  Algonquin  family  and  came  from  the 
region  around  the  Ottawa  river  in  Canada. 

The  number  of  Indians  then"  living  in  North  America  is 
estimated  at  190,000.  Of  these  20,000  belonged  to  the 
Huron-Iroquois  and  90,000  to  the  Algonquin  family.  The 
Algonquins  play  an  interesting  and  important  part  in  the 
historical  development  not  only  of  the  northwest  but  also  of 
Illinois  and  even  of  Chicago.  Their  principal  tribes,  each 
with  many  smaller  branches,  may  be  geographically  divided 
as  follows:  in  the  north,  above  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the 
great  lakes,  the  Nasquapees,  Montagnais,  Algarkins,  Ottawas 
and  Kilistinous  or  Creeks ;  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  the  Micmacs, 
Abenakis,  Sokokis,  Massachusetts,  Narragansetts,  Mohicans, 
Delawares  and  Virginias;  in  the  west,  the  Chippewas,  Me- 
nominees,  Blackfeet,  Sacs  and  Foxes;  in  the  south,  the 
Shawnees. 

Although  united  by  ties  of  kinship  and  language,  these 
tribes  differed  essentially  as  to  customs  and  characteristics, 
even  in  regard  to  looks  and  mechanical  skill.  Some  were 
peaceful  and  docile,  others  warlike  and  intractable.  While 
those  who  first  came  to  the  southern  shores  of  Lake  Michigan 
beyond  doubt  wandered  there  afoot,  had  not  the  slight- 
est idea  of  navigation  and  in  more  than  one  regard  showed  a 
strong  antipathy  to  water  and  an  equally  strong  antipathy  to 
fighting,  on  the  other  hand  their  cousins,  who  afterwards 
invaded  the  country  from  the  north,  proved  themselves  daring 
sailors  and  wild  and  cruel  warriors. 

Of  course  none  of  these  Indian  tribes    were  very  highly 


civilized ;  their  endeavors  were  directed  primarily  to  satisfying 
their  bodily  wants,  and  their  implements,  arms  and  clothing 
were  as  primitive  as  possible.  Some  of  the  chiefs,  however, 
were  men  of  talent;  bold,. heroic,  eloquent,  prudent  and  of 
great  influence  among  their  tribes. 

His  contact  with  the  whites  never  benefitted  the  Indian. 
He  is  weighed  down  with  many  an  evil  race  characteristic, 
but  treaty-breaking  and  lying  are  not  among  them.  These 
he  first  learned  from  his  white  brother,  and  by  him  also  he 
was  tainted  by  terrible,  hereditary  diseases,  before  unknown 
to  him.  After  the  noble  priests  and  explorers,  who  came 
from  the  far  east  to  brave  the  manifold  dangers  and  priva- 
tions of  missionary  life  and  to  turn  the  savages  to  milder 
customs  and  instruct  them  in  the  arts  of  peace,  followed  a 
class  of  men  by  no  means  adapted  to  furnish  the  aborigines 
of  the  New  World  models  of  European  civilization.  Indeed, 
the  official  reports  prove  that  for  the  purpose  of  increasing 
the  number  of  its  colonists  the  French,  as  well  as  the  English 
government  from  time  to  time  emptied  its  prisons  and 
asylums  and  transported  the  wretched  prisoners,  sometimes 
even  in  chains,  to  America.  Not  all  the  western  pioneers 
were  what  poets  and  writers  of  romance  are  wont  to  depict. 
Together  with  the  hardy  explorer,  the  high-minded  idealist, 
the  hard-working  farmer  and  mechanic  came  many  of  that 
class  of  gentry  one  does  not  wish  to  meet  after  dark,  ne'er- 
do-wells  of  all  kinds  and  both  sexes.  Such  a  crowd,  naturally 
enough,  did  nothing  to  help  the  Indian  physically,  improve 
him  morally,  or  to  make  the  intercourse  between  the  natives 
and  immigrants  more  harmonious. 

At  the  time  when  the  first  white  reached  the  present  site 
of  Chicago,  and  for  the  following  half  century,  the  "land  of 
the  Illini "  was  the  home  of  the  following  Indian  tribes : 
Illinois,  Miamis,  Kickapoos,  Mascoutins,  Pottawatomies,  Sacs 
and  Foxes,  Winnebagoes  and  Shawnees — all,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  Winnebagoes,  being  members  of  the  Algonquin 


family.  Of  their  early  history  we  know  only  that  they  claim 
to  have  lived  always  in  America,  or,  as  they  put  it,  that  their 
ancestors  sprang  up  from  the  earth  itself,  the  Shawnees  alone 
preserving  a  tradition  to  the  effect  that  they  came  originally 
from  a  far-distant  land. 

The  names  by  which  the  Indians  were  designated  by  the 
newly-arrived  whites  were,  for  the  most  part,  determined  by 
chance  or  derived  from  the  then  or  former  dwelling  places  or 
from  characteristic  peculiarities  of  the  respective  tribes.  The 


first  explorers  do  not  seem  to  have  been  at  all  particular  as 
to  the  orthography  of  Indian  names,  for  we  find  the  same 
name  spelled  in  a  dozen  different  ways  and  not  infrequently 
mutilated  beyond  easy  recognition.  Thus,  for  instance,  the 
Kaskaskias,  Cahokias,  Tamaroas,  Peorias  and  Mitchigamies, 
with  characteristic  Indian  modesty  called  themselves  the 
"Inini,"  an  Algonquin  word  meaning  "superior  men."  The 
French  found  "Inini"  a  hard  word  to  pronounce  and  con- 
verted it  into  "Illini,"  soon  thereafter  affixing  the  French 


termination  "ois."  Thus  from  "Inini"  were  derived  Illinois, 
Illinoies,  Illinoues,  Illimonek,  Illiniwek,  etc. 

The  principal  settlements  of  the  "Inini"  or  Illinois  were 
in  the  middle  and  northern  part  of  the  territory  now  forming 
the  State  of  Illinois.  In  La  Salle  county,  near  the  present 
site  of  Utica,  there  formerly  stood  a  flourishing  Indian  village 
called  La  Vantum,  which,  in  1680,  contained  no  less  than 
8,000  inhabitants.  In  the  territory  mentioned  there  were 
probably  twenty  other  villages  of  similar  character,  although 
smaller.  The  accompanying  map,  made  for  his  government 
by  the  young  French  engineer,  Franquelin,  in  1684,  affords  a 
good  idea  of  the  Indian  villages  and  the  settlements  and  forts 
of  La  Salle  and  the  French  missionaries. 

The  settlements  of  the  Illini  reached  along  the  various 
river  banks  down  as  far  as  opposite  the  present  city  of  St. 
Louis,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  i8th  century  the  farthest 
outpost  reached  even  to  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio.  This  land 
of  the  Illinois  was  at  that  time  a  veritable  Indian  paradise: 
luxuriant  meadows,  heavy  forests,  splendid  farm  land,  an 
abundance  of  fish  in  lake  and  river,  and  of  game  in  wood  and 
open;  buffalo,  deer,  bear,  panther,  wildcat,  wolf,  fox,  beaver, 
otter,  marten,  ground-hog,  raccoon,  rabbits,  wild  swan,  geese, 
ducks,  wild  turkeys,  partridges,  quail  and  enormous  flocks  of 
pigeons;  such  vegetables  as  the  red  man  cared  for  as,  for 
instance,  maize,  beans,  cabbages  and  various  roots,  nuts  and 
wild  fruit  in  plenty — the  Indian's  insurmountable  abhorrence 
of  work  was  of  small  consequence  in  those  golden  days. 

But  no  rose  without  its  thorn,  no  cup  of  bliss  without  its 
drop  of  bitterness.  The  very  blessings  of  the  Illinois  proved 
the  cause  of  their  misfortune.  Even  without  the  aid  of  tele- 
graph and  newspapers,  the  report  of  the  extraordinary  rich- 
ness of  the  country  spread  to  the  farthest  corners  of  the  land, 
and  there  soon  sprang  up  among  the  noble  red  men  a  social- 
istic-communistic warfare  which  would  have  brought  joy  to 
the  soul  of  even  the  most  advanced  of  modern  "walking 

5 


delegates."  The  first  who  came  to  "  divide  "  were  the  Sioux 
from  the  far  west;  from  the  north  came  the  Sacs  and  Foxes; 
theKickapoosandPottawatomies  from  the  northeast,  and  last 
but  not  least  from  the  remote  east  rushed  in  the  wild  hordes 
of  the  Iroquois.  Then  the  skull-cracking  began  and  many  a 
worthy  predecessor  of  Johann  Most  bit  the  dust,  before  the 
great  communistic  principle  of  division  in  its  various  stages 
and  repetitions,  first  found  a  practical  application  on  the  virgin 
soil  of  this  free  country.  The  strongest,  cruelest  and  wildest 
of  course  came  out  ahead  in  the  deal,  in  this  case  the  Iroquois, 
who  undertook  several  bloody  expeditions  to  "  divide "  with 
the  Illini,  till  the  latter  were  almost  wiped  out  of  existence. 
The  history  of  the  Indians  of  the  northwest  from  the  middle 
of  the  xyth  till  toward  the  end  of  the  i8th  century  reads  like 
the  last  act  of  Hamlet,  bloodshed  without  end,  a  battle  of  all 
against  all  to  annihilation.  But  even  this  wild  can-can  of 
bestial  selfishness  was  not  without  romance,  as  is  proven  by 
the  following  historically  authenticated  incident,  recounted  all 
the  more  willingly  as  it  throws  some  golden  rays  on  the 
gloomy  picture  of  the  times  and  forms  one  of  those  rare  excep- 
tions where  an  Indian  woman  participated  actively  and  trium- 
phantly in  the  affairs  of  men.  It  was  about  the  year  1673. 
The  Iroquois  had  again  undertaken  one  of  their  looting  expedi- 
tions, had  plundered  a  village,  driven  away  the  inhabitants  and 
indulged  in  one  of  their  beastly  orgies  of  victory  which  was 
not  interrupted  even  by  the  set  of  sun.  Helpless  and  listless, 
the  vanquished  Illini  watched  from  afar  the  revels  of  their 
enemies.  Then  the  youthful  Watchekee — or  Watseka  as  the 
scribes  of  the  whites  were  wont  to  call  her — appeared  before 
them.  Her  eye  flashed  with  the  fire  of  inspiration.  Her 
cheeks  glowed  with  righteous  anger  at  the  wrongs  wrought 
upon  her  people  and  at  their  spiritless  endurance  of  them. 
She  besought  the  warriors  to  avail  themselves  of  the  cover  of 
night  and  the  disorganized  condition  of  the  victors  for  revenge 
and  retaliation.  But  the  men  were  not  disposed  to  again  cope 


with  the  powerful  enemy  and  sat  in  sullen  submission  to  their 
fate.  Then  Watseka  addressed  the  women  and  begged  them 
to  shame  the  cowardly  warriors  and  in  their  place  to  march 
forth  against  the  foe.  The  squaws,  each  armed  with  bow  and 
arrow,  responded  in  hordes.  Then,  at  last,  the  men  bestirred 
themselves  and,  led  by  the  brave  girl,  this  strange  band  sur- 
prised the  Iroquois  and  almost  exterminated  them.  The  place 
where  this  battle  occurred  more  than  200  years  ago  is  now 
the  county  seat  of  Iroquois  county,  and  in  honor  of  this  Indian 
Jeanne  d'Arc  is  called  Watseka. 

After  the  French  took  possession  of  the  Northwest 
territory  the  history  of  the  red  man  becomes  blended  more  or 
less  with  the  story  of  the  priests  and  soldiers  of  Charles  V, 
the  explorers  of  the  region.  It  was  in  1534  that  Jacques  Cartier 
(or  Quartier  as  the  name  is  often  spelled),  an  experienced 
Breton  sailor,  who  made  fishing  trips  from  the  west  coast  of 
France  to  the  north  coast  of  Labrador  drifted  into  the  Straits 
of  Belle  Isle  while  on  a  voyage  of  discovery  in  the  interests 
of  the  French  government.  His  expedition  consisted  of  two 
vessels,  each  of  61  tons  burden  and  the  crews  numbered  61 
men.  From  the  Atlantic  Cartier  made  his  way  down  the 
Straits  of  Belle  Isle,  lying  between  Labrador  and  Newfound- 
land, to  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  finally  landed  in  the 
Gaspe  district  on  the  northeast  point  of  Canada,  between  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  Chaleur's  Bay.  In  this  desolate 
spot,  inhabited  by  only  a  few  Indians,  the  French  sailors 
erected  a  large  wooden  cross  which  bore  the  arms  of  Charles 
V  and  the  inscription,  "Vive  le  roi  de  France,"  and  thus  took 
possession  of  the  newly-discovered  country. 

It  is  reported  that  the  Indians,  the  Canadagnois  (Nasse- 
quapes),  who  were  much  disturbed  at  the  sight  of  these 
strange  men  and  their  mysterious  ceremony,  asked  for  an 
explanation,  whereupon  Cartier  replied  that  the  cross  had  been 
erected  simply  to  mark  the  harbor  and  so  allayed  the  Indians' 
suspicions/  Alas,  their  first  meeting  with  the  whites  had  a 


sad  sequel,  for  Cartier  stole  two  of  their  boys  and  carried 
them  back  with  him  to  France. 

May  19,  1535,  Cartier  started  on  another  expedition  to 
Labrador,  this -time  with  three  ships.  Again  he  passed 
through  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle,  but  this  time  kept  to  the 
west  and  continued  up  the  St.  Lawrence  to  the  isle  of  Orleans, 
which,  on  account  of  its  luxuriant  vegetation  and  heavily-laden 
wild  grape  vines,  he  called  the  "Isle  of  Bacchus."  The 
Indians  of  this  island,  especially  their  chief  Donnacona,  treated 
the  French  in  the  kindliest  manner,  helped  them  to  explore 
the  country  and  accompanied  them  up  the  Hochelaga  (St. 
Lawrence)  to  the  big  Indian  camp,  Stadacone,  on  the  site  of 
t^e  present  city  of  Quebec.  Here,  too,  they  were  received 
in  a  friendly  manner,  but  the  natives  tried  by  artifice  and 
persuasion  to  prevent  the  strangers  from  going  further  up 
the  stream.  Cartier,  however,  persisted  and  on  October  2, 
1835,  successfully  reached  the  great  Indian  camp  at  that  time 
called,  like  the  river,  Hochelaga — to-day  Montreal.  Amid 
the  blowing  of  trumpets  and  waving  of  flags  the  French 
landed.  The  Indians,  who  believed  them  of  divine  origin, 
were  beside  themselves  with  joy.  They  overwhelmed  the 
newcomers  with  all  possible  proofs  of  their  hospitality  and 
with  great  pride  showed  them  their  fortified  camp,  consisting 
of  about  fifty  immense  block-houses,  and  finally  even  brought 
out  their  sick,  requesting  that  Cartier  should  touch  and  so 
heal  them.  The  clever  Frenchman  made  the  most  of  the 
situation.  He  made  the  sign  of  the  cross  over  the  ailing, 
read  a  few  verses  from  the  Bible  and  prayed  for  them — all  in 
French.  Then  he  distributed  axes,  knives,  glass  beads, 
looking-glasses  and  various  small  trinkets  among  the  delighted 
aborigines  and  with  another  flourish  of  triumph  left  his  new 
friends,  promising  to  return.  Highly  pleased  with  his  adven- 
tures and  successes,  Cartier  returned  to  Stadacone,  where  he 
built  a  fort  and  spent  the  winter.  His  gratitude  for  the 
hospitality  shown  him  by  the  Indians  the  Frenchman  proved 

8 


by  capturing  Donnacona  and  some  of  the  other  chiefs  and 
taking  them  as  prisoners  to  France.  It  was  on  July  16,  1536, 
when  the  expedition  arrived  at  St.  Malo.  The  Indian  chiefs 
were  immediately  baptized,  but  this  attention  did  not  prevent 
their  dying  shortly  after  from  homesickness.  Cartier  made 
several  other  voyages  to  the  New  World  before  his  death  in 
1555.  The  country  discovered  by  him  was  called  Canada 
because  its  great  stream,  the  St.  Lawrence,  was  sometimes 
called  by  the  natives  the  "Canada"  river.  According  to 
other  French  explorers  the  word  "Canada"  signifies  "city," 
and  still  others  translate  it  "  continent."  In  the  writings  of 
Cartier,  however,  the  title  "Canada"  is  used  to  designate  a 
strip  of  land  lying  between  Quebec  and  the  Isl$  aux  Coudres. 
During  the  sixteenth  century  many  other  explorers  visited 
the  country  that  Cartier  had  described,  but  the  first  perma- 
nent settlement  was  made  early  in  the  seventeenth  century 
by  the  celebrated  Samuel  de  Champlain. 

Champlain  was  born  in  Brouage,  on  the  Bay  of  Biscay, 
in  1567,  of  an  old  and  illustrious  family  which  had  for  gener- 
ations followed  the  sea.  In  addition  to  being  a  thoroughly 
equipped  sailor,  Champlain  received  an  excellent  military 
training.  In  1599,  in  command  of  the  St.  Julien,  a  vessel 
belonging  to  his  uncle,  he  sailed  for  some  time  along  the 
coast  of  the  West  Indies,  Panama  and  Mexico,  and  in  1601 
returned  to  France.  While  in  Panama  he  looked  into  the 
question  of  a  canal  to  join  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific,  and 
on  his  arrival  in  France  pointed  out  the  advantage  of  such 
a  work. 

He  thus  became  the  father  of  the  great  Panama  Canal 
scheme,  which  was  finally  taken  up  by  Ferdinand  do  Lesseps 
some  years  ago  and  which  only  lately,  after  the  squander- 
ing of  four  hundred  million  dollars,  culminated  in  the  great- 
est public  scandal  of  the  century,  and  almost  destroyed 
the  French  Republic.  March  25,  1603,  Champlain  organized 
an  expedition  for  North  America  and  on  May  24th  landed 


near  Tadoussac  at  the  confluence  of  the  Saguenay  and 
St.  Lawrence.  From  there  he  visited  the  places  discovered 
by  Cartier  in  1535.  In  August  he  returned  to  France,  pub- 
lished extensive  reports  about  his  travels  and  the  next  spring 
again  started  out  on  an  exploring  trip.  He  first  touched  at 
Nova  Scotia  and  afterwards  coasted  along  the  shore  to  the 
Chesepe-ake  bay.  In  1607  he  returned  to  France  and  agitated 
the  question  of  establishing  a  French  trading  post  on  the 
St.  Lawrence  and  successful  in  his  endeavors,  he  returned  in 
1608,  sailed  up  the  St.  Lawrence  to  the  place  called  "Stada- 
cone"  by  Cartier  but  then  called  Quebec  (narrows)  by  the 
Algonquins.  Here  Champlain  built  houses,  sowed  grain,  in- 
augurated an  extensive  fur  trade  and  thus  founded  the  city 
of  Quebec. 

As  the  friendly  Algonquins  were  hard  pushed  by  the 
Iroquois  who  lived  to  the  southeast  of  them,  Champlain,  in 
the  summer  of  1609,  united  with  them  in  an  expedition  against 
their  enemies.  This  was  about  the  same  time  that  the  .English- 
man Henry  Hudson,  in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany of  Amsterdam  was  exploring  the  Hudson  river  and  in 
his  little  vessel,  the  "Half  Moon"  first  encountered  the 
red  men. 

On  his  expedition  Champlain  discovered  the  beautiful 
lake  which  now  bears  his  name,  and  on  it  swarms  of  Iroquois. 
When  the  hostile  forces  caught  sight  of  each  other  they 
immediately  put  to  shore  and  fortified  themselves.  The  next 
morning  at  sunrise  the  fight  commenced.  Awkward  as  the 
arquebuse  now  appears,  it  proved  a  terrible  weapon  in  com- 
petition with  the  simple  bows  and  arrows  of  the  naked  savages. 
Champlain  killed  two  chiefs  with  the  first  shot  fired  and  with 
a  second  bullet  mortally  wounded  a  third.  Thereupon  the 
Iroquois  fled.  This  was  the  first  Indian  blood  shed  by  the 
whites  in  North  America  and  in  course  of  time  the  French 
paid  dearly  for  their  easily  won  victory.  As  long  as  they  were 
in  power  in  Canada  and  when  they  established  colonies  in 

10 


Illinois  the  Iroquois  were  persistently  after  them  and,  partly 
on  their  own  account  and  partly  as  hirelings  of  the  English, 
relentlessly  worried  and  tormented  them. 

In  the  fall  of  1609  Champlain  visited  France  and  in  the 
following  spring  returned  to  America  with  a  well  equipped 
fleet  and  a  considerable  number  of  mechanics.  Shortly  after 
reaching  Quebec  he  organized  another  campaign  against  the 
Iroquois  and  at  about  the  same  time  that  his  king  and  patron, 
Henry  IV,  fell  a  victim  to  the  dagger  of  Ravaillac,  he  himself, 
while  storming  a  fortified  camp  of  the  enemy  near  the  Sorel 
river,  was  dangerously  wounded  by  an  Indian  arrow.  He 
sought  and  found  health  in  his  native  land  and  in  1612  was 
made  lieutenant-governor  of  New  France  (Canada).  He 
straightway  assumed  the  duties  of  his  new  office  and  for  a 
number  of  years  discharged  them  with  the  greatest  discretion 
and  ability.  In  the  autumn  of  1613  he  revisited  France  in 
the  interest  of  the  colony  and  on  his  return  in  1615  brought 
with  him  Father  Denis  Jamay,  two  other  Franciscan  monks 
and  a  priest,  all  of  whom  rendered  him  valuable  services  both 
in  his  exploring  voyages  along  the  St.  Lawrence  river  and 
through  lakes  Huron  and  Ontario  and  also  in  his  efforts  to 
civilize  the  Algonquins.  These  Franciscan  monks  were  the 
first  spiritual  teachers  to  leave  the  Old  World  to  bring  to  the 
savages  of  the  north  instruction  in  the  Christian  religion  and 
European  civilization. 

At  this  time  his  old  enemies,  the  Iroquois  began  to  harass 
Champlain,  and  in  the  fall  of  1615  he  was  not  only  twice  dan- 
gerously wounded  by  them,  but  was  even  repulsed  on  account 
of  the  insubordination  of  his  allies,  the  Hurons.  The  star  of 
the  new  settlement  seemed  to  be  now  waning.  It  was  in  vain 
that  Champlain,  after  his  recovery,  redoubled  his  exertions  to 
increase  the  trade  of  his  colony  and  awaken  in  the  mother 
country  a  more  active  interest  in  it.  The  young  common- 
wealth could  not  yet  stand  alone,  and  the  Italian  adventurers 
who  during  the  minority  of  Louis  XIII  exercised  such  an 

ii 


unfortunate  influence  upon  the  French  regent,  Maria  de 
Medici,  felt  not  the  slightest  concern  for  it.  Only  after  Car- 
dinal Richelieu  became  a  member  of  the  council  of  state,  was 
there  felt  a  decided  change  for  the  better  in  regard  to  the 
struggling  colonies  of  the  New  World.  The  settlement  of 
Quebec  was  energetically  pushed,  the  commerce  with  the 
natives  materially  increased,  and  the  colony  itself  adequately 
fortified.  Richelieu,  who  paid  particular  attention  to  trans- 
Atlantic  affairs,  especially  during  the  first  year  of  his  power, 
appointed  the  duke  of  Ventadour  as  viceroy  of  New  France 
(1625),  and  the  first  official  act  of  the  latter  was  to  send  over 
a  number  of  Jesuit  priests  to  participate  in  the  work  of  civiliz- 
ing and  converting  the  natives.  This  act,  as  will  be  soon 
seen,  was  of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  development  of 
the  northwest  and  especially  of  Illinois. 

Shortly  after  the  arrival  of  the  Jesuits  some  lively  con- 
troversies took  place  between  them  on  the  one  hand  and  the 
Franciscan  fathers  and  the  colonial  government  on  the  other ; 
but  the  Jesuits  soon  gained  control  in  the  affairs  of  the  colony. 

A  fateful  event  in  the  history  of  the  settlement  was  the 
arrival  in  July,  1628,  of  English  men-of-war  under  the  com- 
mand of  Sir  David  Kirk  and  his  two  brothers,  who  demanded 
the  unconditional  surrender  of  the  fortress  and  its  commander, 
Champlain.  The  Canada  company,  organized  in  Paris  by 
Cardinal  Richelieu,  had  at  almost  the  same  time  dispatched 
from  France  several  vessels  laden  with  provisions,  arms,  etc., 
and  these  were  anxiously  awaited  by  the  little  French  colony 
at  Quebec.  Before  arriving  at  their  destination,  however,  the 
vessels  were  intercepted  and  captured  by  the  English  men-of- 
war.  In  consequence  of  this  mishap  the  poor  colonists  passed 
a  miserable  winter,  and  just  one  year  after  the  arrival  of  the 
English,  Champlain  was  forced  to  capitulate.  He  was  taken 
to  England  and  there  held  as  a  prisoner  until  1632.  At  this 
time  the  French  government  had  apparently  lost  all  hope  for 
the  future  of  the  Canadian  colony,  for  when  by  the  peace  of 

12 


vSt.  Germain-en-Laye  the  English  offered  to  give  up  their 
claims  to  the  settlement  in  Quebec  the  French  were  at  first 
undecided  as  to  whether  they  should  accept  the  offer.  But 
in  the  spring  of  1633  -Champlain,  with  three  excellently 
equipped  vessels,  returned  once  more  to  his  colony — this  time 
as  its  governor.  There  was  boundless  joy  among  both  Indians 
and  whites  when  the  old  and  tried  leader  made  his  appear- 
ance. Immediately  after  his  arrival  Champlain  fortified  Riche- 
lieu Island,  founded  the  city  of  Three  Rivers  and  established 
a  school  for  young  Indians.  The  great  explorer  did  not,  how- 
ever, long  enjoy  the  fruits  of  his  labor,  for  he  died  in  Quebec 
Christmas  day,  1635. 

The  powerful  impulse  given  by  Champlain  to  the  settle- 
ment and  civilization  of  the  New  World  did  not  cease  at  his 
death,  for  his  companions  followed  the  same  path — toward  the 
west.  Among  them  was  Jean  Nicolet,  who  lived  for  years 
among  the  various  Algonquin  tribes,  learning  to  speak  their 
language  fluently  and  finally  becoming  so  thoroughly  Indian- 
ized  that  the  red  men  treated  him  like  one  of  themselves.  His 
services  as  interpreter  and  negotiator,  in  fact  his  whole  influ- 
ence on  the  Indians,  were  of  the  greatest  value  to  the  Canad- 
ian government.  On  the  4th  of  July,  1634,  Nicolet  discovered 
Lake  Michigan,  or  as  it  was  first  called  Lake  Illinois,  "Lac 
des  Illinois,"  and  afterwards  explored  a  large  part  of  the 
northwest,  visiting  the  Chippewas  in  Green  Bay,  the  Mas- 
coutins  on  the  Fox  river,  and  the  Menominees  and  Winne- 
bagoes  on  the  lake  named  after  the  latter.  Wherever  Nicolet 
went  there  were  great  Indian  gatherings  which  the  explorer 
invariably  addressed,  producing  a  strong  impression  on  the 
red  men.  As  a  matter  of  curiosity  it  may  be  mentioned  that 
on  the  occasion  of  his  last  visit  the  Indians  honored  this 
Frenchman  with  a  banquet  at  which  not  less  than  120  beavers 
were  served.  Nicolet  was  the  first  white  man,  whose  foot 
touched  the  territory  of  Wisconsin  and  Illinois.  The  first 
white  man  to  see  the  upper  Mississippi  was  Pierre  Esprit 

13 


Radisson,  1658,  an  indefatigable  explorer  and  fur-trader,  who 
on  all  his  travels  kept  an  accurate  diary,  and  to  whom  his 
contemporaries  are  indebted  for  much  important  information. 
Jointly  with  his  brother-in-law,  Medart  Chouart,  he  established 
a  settlement  on  Hudson  Bay,  which  afterwards  developed  into 
the  well-known  Hudson  Bay  company.  The  Jesuit  fathers, 
Menard  and  Guerin,  both  of  whom  afterwards  perished  on  an 
exploring  tour,  are  also  reported  to  have  seen  the  upper  Mis- 
sissippi more  than  ten  years  before  Jolliet  and  Marquette. 
The  next  of  the  French  discovers  was  Nicholas  Perrot,  who 
from  1670  to  1690  distinguished  himself  in  explorations  of  the 
upper  lakes,  the  Fox  river  valley  and  the  upper  Mississippi. 
He  was  the  discoverer  of  the  lead  mines  in  the  west. 

Louis  Jolliet  (frequently  spelled  Joliet)  was  the  first  of  the 
French  pioneers  to  lead  an  exploring  expedition  to  the  Illinois 
country  and  to  set  foot  on  the  site  of  modern  Chicago.  He 
was  a  child  of  the  New  World.  Born  in  Quebec  in  1645,  the 
son  of  a  poor  mechanic  he  was  brought  up  in  the  local  Jesuit 
school  and  destined  to  become  a  priest.  But  the  free  air  of 
the  forest  had  more  charm  for  him  than  the  close  atmosphere 
of  a  monastery.  In  1669,  in  commission  of  the  colonial  gov- 
ernment, he  visited  the  copper  mines  on  the  shores  of  Lake 
Superior.  On  his  return  he  explored  Lake  Erie.  Owing  to 
his  success  with  all  his  undertakings,  he  received  a  commis- 
sion from  Governor  Frontenac  to  visit  the  "  South  lake  in  the 
Mascoutin  country  and  the  great  Mississippi  river  "  (from  the 
Indian  "Miche-Sepe,"  great  river).  At  that  time  the  Canad- 
ians did  not  know  that  the  mighty  stream  discovered  by  De 
Soto  in  1541  and  explored  from  the  White  river  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  was  identical  with  the  "  Miche-Sepe  "  of  which  they 
first  learned  from  the  Indians,  and  whose  upper  part  was 
navigated  by  their  missionaries. 

In  the  fall  of  1672  Jolliet  set  forth  on  his  new  expedition, 
accompanied  by  a  trusty  servant  and  four  Indians.  December  I 
he  arrived  at  the  Straits  of  Mackinaw  connecting  Lakes  Huron 


and  Michigan.  On  the  northern  shore  at  that  time  there 
stood  the  French  Jesuit  Mission  of  St.  Ignace  whose  superior, 
Father  Marquette,  was  well-known  for  his  zeal  and  success 
iri  civilizing  and  converting  the  natives.  Thither  Jolliet  first 
went  to  invite  Marquette,  who  spoke  six  Indian  dialects 
fluently,  to  accompany  him  on  his  perilous  trip  to  the  far 
west.  Marquette  was  only  too  glad  to  accept.  On  the  1 7th  of 
May,  1673,  they  left  Mackinaw  and  a  few  days  later  arrived 
at  Green  Bay  from  where  they  went  up  the  Fox  river.  Then 
they  got  the  Mascoutin  Indians  to  guide  them  to  the  Wis- 
consin river  down  which  they  floated  to  the  Mississippi, which 
they  reached  June  17?  1673.  They  were  nearly  a  week  on 
the  Mississippi  before  discovering  the  first  trace  of  human 
beings,  an  Indian  trail  leading  from  the  western  shore  of  the 
river  to  a  beautiful  prairie.  The  boats  were  made  fast  and 
Marquette  and  Jolliet  went  ashore  and  after  fervently  praying 
for  heaven's  blessing,  marched  along  the  newly  discovered 
trail  in  anxious  anticipation. 

How  the  hearts  of  the  two  bold  discoverers  must  have 
beaten  as  they  suddenly  saw  three  Indian  villages  spread 
out  on  the  green  meadow  before  them.  A  loud  call  from  the 
new  comers  was  the  signal  for  a  lively  scene.  The  astonished 
Indians  rushed  out  of  their  wigwams  and  from  a  distance  care- 
fully regarded  the  peculiar  looking  strangers.  After  a  short 
pause  four  old  chiefs  approached  slowly  and  with  dignity,  carry- 
ing in  their  hands  pipes  of  peace.  Close  up  to  the  two  white 
men  they  marched,  and  then  without  saying  a  word  stood  before 
them.  From  this  Father  Marquette  perceived  that  the  Indians 
were  well  disposed  toward  their  unexpected  visitors  and  asked 
them  in  the  Algonquin  dialect:  "Who  are  you?"  "We  are 
Inini,"  was  the  reply.  The  pipes  of  peace  were  then  passed 
around  and  afterwards  a  regular  Indian  feast  was  held  to 
celebrate  the  newly  formed  friendship  between  the  whites 
and  the  redskins.  The  next  day  600  of  the  natives  accom- 
panied the  explorers  to  their  boats  and  won  from  them  a 

15 


promise  soon  to  return — a  promise  which  unfortunately  they 
were  never  able  to  keep. 

Then  they  went  further  down  the  Mississippi — how  far 
it  is  not  definitely  known.  Marquette  himself,  in  a  report 
prepared  much  later,  after  a  long  illness,  and  without  written 
notes,  the  diaries  of  both  having  been  lost  through  the  cap- 
sizing of  the  boat,  maintained  that  he  and  Jolliet  had  gone  as 
far  south  as  the  32°  of  latitude,  but  LaSalle  and  other  con- 
temporaries vigorously  disputed  this.  It  is  a  fact  that  Mar- 
quette and  Jolliet  on  the  iyth  of  July,  just  four  weeks  after 
their  first  meeting  with  the  Indians  on  the  Mississippi,  turned 
homeward,  so  that,  considering  the  possible  speed  of  their  boat, 
it  would  seem  probable  that  they  scarcely  went  further  south 
than  to  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri  or  at  most  to  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Ohio,  near  the  present  site  of  Cairo.  The 
reason  for  their  return,  as  given  by  Marquette,  was  their  fear 
of  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards.  In  this  regard  it 
is  worthy  of  note  that  the  Indians,  whom  they  met  in  the 
southernmost  part  of  their  journey,  had  fire-arms,  axes,  knives 
and  beads  which  they  claimed  to  have  received  from  the 
"Europeans  in  the  east." 

On  their  return  voyage  Jolliet  and  Marquette  went  from 
the  Mississippi  into  the  Illinois  river  as  the  Peorias,  living  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Illinois,  told  them  that  this  was  the  shortest 
way  to  Mackinaw.  In  Kaskaskia,  a  village  of  the  Illinois, 
they  were  received  in  the  kindliest  manner  possible  and 
indeed  a  chief  with  a  picked  band  of  young  Indians  accom- 
panied them  to  lake  Michigan,  along  whose  western  shore 
the  Frenchmen  rowed  to  Green  Bay,  which  they  reached  in 
September. 

In  the  Jesuit  Mission  at  this  place,  Jolliet  passed  the 
winter  and  in  the  spring  betook  himself  to  Quebec.  Here  in 
Fort  Frontenac  he  talked  over  with  La  Salle  the  events  of 
his  trip  and  made  a  written  report  to  the  colonial  authorities 
who  immediately  turned  it  over  to  the  French  government, 

16 


which  in  turn  had  it  printed.  His  request  to  found  a  colony 
in  the  land  of  the  Illinois  was  peremptorily  refused  by  Colbert, 
the  famous  minister  of  Louis  XIV,  on  the  ground  that  Canada 
itself  should  first  be  more  strongly  fortified  and  thickly 
peopled.  Jolliet  thereupon  devoted  his  attention  to  the  north 
and  northeast  of  Canada,  received  in  1680  from  the  French 
government  the  isle  of  Anticosti  and  other  land  grants,  and 
was  successful  in  all  his  undertakings,  until  death  in  1700  put 
an  end  to  his  remarkable  career. 

Far  more  tragic  was  the  end  of  his  brave  companion, 
Marquette.  In  consequence  of  his  great  exertions  and  of  the 
privations  which  he  endured  in  his  travels  throughout  the  far 
west,  he  was  still  sick  when  Jolliet  returned  to  Quebec.  He 
had  to  remain  in  Green  Bay  and  not  until  the  fall  did  he  feel 
strong  enough  to  return  to  the  land  of  the  Illinois.  On  the  pre- 
sent site  of  Milwaukee,  sick  and  exhausted,  he  passed  a  miser- 
able winter  in  a  wretched  log-hut.  In  March  he  had  so  far 
recovered  as  to  continue  his  journey  to  the  Indian  settlement  at 
Kaskaskia,  where  he  arrived  on  the  8th  of  April.  He  was 
received  by  the  natives  with  the  greatest  joy.  By  the  hundreds 
they  listened  to  the  words  of  their  noble,  white  friend,  who 
was  able  to  exercise  the  greatest  influence  over  them.  On 
Easter  Sunday  of  the  same  year  Marquette  founded  an  Indian 
mission  after  he  had  converted  scores  to  Christianity.  His 
rapidly  increasing  illness,  however,  compelled  him  to  make 
immediate  preparations  for  a  return.  Something  like  the  pre- 
monition of  death  may  have  come  to  the  high-minded  man,  as 
he  took  his  departure  from  his  Indian  converts  and  promised 
to  send  them  a  friend  from  the  north.  So  unwilling  were  the 
Indians  to  part  with  their  teacher  that  hundreds  accompanied 
him  to  Lake  Michigan  from  the  eastern  shore  of  which  he 
embarked  for  home.  Alas,  it  was  not  permitted  him  to  reach 
his  lonely  cloister  in  the  far  north.  He  became  weaker  and 
weaker,  and  at  last  so  helpless  that  his  two  comrades  had 
to  carry  him  in  and  out  of  the  boat.  May  18,  1675,  having 

18 


reached  a  point  about  thirty  miles  north  of  the  present  city  of 
Manistee,  Marquette  caused  a  halt  to  be  made  at  the  mouth  of 
a  little  river,  which  long  afterwards  bore  his  name.  Then  he 
informed  his  friends  that  he  felt  his  end  was  near.  On  a  hill 
near  the  water's  edge  they  hastily  constructed  a  hut  of  bark 
and  fir  branches,  and  here  the  next  night  ended  the  blessed 
life  of  this  great  but  still  young  man.  After  the  body  was 
consigned  to  earth,  Marquette's  companions  continued  their 
sorrowful  journey  to  their  northern  home.  In  the  win- 
ter of  1676  a  number  of  his  Indian  adherents  showed 
their  gratitude  and  affection  by  disinterring  the  body  of  the 
missionary,  placing  it  in  a  carefully  constructed  birch-bark 
coffin  and  taking  it  to  the  monastery  at  St.  Ignatius,  where  it 
was  reburied  under  one  of  the  flag-stones  of  the  chapel.  For 
two  hundred  years  the  bones  of  the  illustrious  man  rested  in 
the  silence  of  the  cloister,  forgotten  by  all,  until  the  year  1877? 
when  they  were  discovered  and  brought  to  the  attention  of 
the  world. 

It  was  no  easy  path  they  trod,  who  led  the  way  for 
modern  bank  presidents,  speculators,  beer  brewers  and  pork 
packers ! 

At  the  time  Marquette  founded  the  mission  at  Kaskaskia, 
there  was  among  the  various  tribes  of  the  Algonquins  a  fairly 
brisk  trade,  reaching  from  the  St.  Lawrence  river  to  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi,  and  having  its  center  in 
the  region  of  the  great  lakes.  The  number  of  French  hunters, 
fur-traders  and  hangers-on,  having  commercial  relations  with 
the  Indians,  was  already  very  considerable.  And  while 
the  red  men  were  ever  at  loggerheads  with  such  Englishmen 
as  wandered  thither,  in  regard  to  the  French  they  seemed  to 
be  of  Heine's  opinion  that  even  a  cursing  Frenchman  was  pre- 
ferred by  the  Lord  to  a  praying  Englishman.  The  Iroquois 
alone  formed  an  exception  to  the  rule,  but  they  were  never 
reinforced  by  the  other  tribes,  unless  the  English  made  it  to 
their  material  advantage  to  do  so. 


It  is  worthy  of  note  that  as  early  as  June  14,  1671,  at  a 
French-Indian  conference  held  near  the  Falls  of  St.  Marie 
(Sault  Ste.  Marie)  St.  Lusson,  in  behalf  of  the  French 
government  in  Canada,  took  possession,  in  the  name  of  Louis 
XIV,  of  the  great  lakes  and  the  adjacent  territories  as  well 
as  of  all  land  "south  to  the  ocean  that  is  already  discovered 
or  is  still  to  be  discovered."  The  ceremony  was  imposing, 
and  after  it  was  over  a  great  wooden  cross  was  raised  in 
honor  of  the  church.  On  this  occasion  were  present  repre- 
sentatives of  seventeen  Indian  tribes,  from  all  parts  of  the 
before  mentioned  territory — among  them  the  Menominees, 
Pottawatomies,  Sauks  and  Winnebagoes — and  many  French- 
men, including  Jolliet,  Perrot,  Moreau  and  many  Jesuit 
missionaries.  The  Canadians  gave  the  chiefs  numerous 
presents,  whose  value,  however,  was  not  so  great,  so  the 
chronicles  tell  us,  but  that  it  was  offset  by  the  rich  furs  and 
trophies  of  the  chase  which  the  noble  red  men  had  brought 
with  them  for  their  white  brothers.  The  natives  and 
foreigners  at  that  time  were  in  splendid  accord. 

Volumes  could  be  written  of  the  adventures  and  labors 
of  the  various  travelers  and  explorers  in  the  north  and  north- 
west, but  to  a  complete  understanding  of  certain  events, 
especially  bearing  upon  the  development  of  the  state  of 
Illinois  and  the  city  of  Chicago,  it  is  especially  necessary  to 
consider  the  life  and  labors  of  one  man  whose  figure  stands 
out  most  clearly  and  prominently  among  the  pathfinders  and 
martyrs  of  his  time,  and  whose  name  is  closely  united  with 
the  early  history  of  the  lake  region :  Robert  Cavelier,  Sieur 
de  La  Salle. 

Cavelier  was  born  in  Rouen,  November  23,  1643.  His 
father,  a  well-to-do  merchant,  gave  him  a  scientific  education, 
and  before  he  was  twenty  he  held  the  position  of  teacher  in  a 
Jesuit  school  in  his  native  city.  Soon,  however,  the  ambitious 
youth  left  the  narrow  life  of  his  home  for  the  broader  sphere 
of  activity  offered  in  the  new  world.  Thither  his  older  brother 

20 


ROBERT  CAVELIER,  SIEUR  DE  LA  SALLE. 


21 


had  already  gone  as  a  teacher  in  the  Jesuit  college  of  St. 
Sulpice  at  Montreal.  In  the  year  1666  he  arrived  at  Montreal, 
and  through  the  influence  of  his  brother  received  from  the 
Jesuits  a  large  grant  of  land  which  he  straightway  caused  to 
be  settled  by  his  numerous  followers.  Immediately  upon  his 
arrival  La  Salle  conceived  the  most  daring  plans.  He  wished 
to  find  a  passage  to  China  by  way  of  the  American  continent. 
His  means  were  in  no  proportion  to  the  magnitude  of  his 
schemes,  but  the  courageous  youth  was  not  to  be  deterred  on 
that  account.  From  the  Indians  with  whom  he  was  in  con- 
stant communication  he  learned  of  the  great  rivers  of  the  west, 
and  to  them  he  first  turned  his  attention.  To  gain  a  part  of 
the  money  necessary  for  their  exploration,  he  sold  his  lands 
and  arranged  an  expedition  from  which  he  did  not  return  for 
two  years.  He  went  to  the  south  and  west  and  discovered 
the  Ohio,  up  which  he  went  to  the  rapids  at  Louisville.  On 
his  exploring  tours  he  did  not  neglect  the  fur  trade  through 
which  he  hoped  to  secure  the  means  for  still  more  extended 
trips.  In  1672  he  visited  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Michigan 
and  upper  Illinois.  In  the  year  1673  Cavelier,  taking  with 
him  the  warmest  kind  of  letters  of  recommendation  from  Gov- 
ernor Frontenac  to  Louis  XIV  and  his  powerful  minister,  Col- 
bert, returned  to  France  to  obtain  a  letter  of  nobility  and  a 
grant  of  land  and  to  interest  influential  people  in  his  under- 
takings. Louis'  insatiable  rapacity  and  greed  for  land  greatly 
aided  the  young  explorer.  Successful  in  all  that  he  had 
planned,  Cavelier,  now  Sieur  de  La  Salle,  on  his  return  to 
America,  took  possession  of  Fort  Frontenac  and  the  territory 
belonging  to  it,  all  of  which  had  been  granted  him  by  the 
French  government.  Henceforth  he  devoted  himself  with 
great  activity  to  his  colonization  schemes,  and  especially  to  the 
fur  trade  from  which  he  still  had  to  obtain  for  the  most  part 
the  means  for  his  various  enterprises. 

His  purpose  to  find  a  passage  from  America  to  China,  La 
Salle  now  abandoned,  and  devoted  himself  to  a  plan  to  build 

22 


forts  along  the  shores  of  the  great  lakes  as  well  as  on  the  Illi- 
nois, St.  Joseph  and  Mississippi  rivers,  and  especially  at  the 
mouth  of  the  latter,  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  to  unite  all  the 
Indians  of  the  west,  and  thus  acquire  for  France  possession  of 
the  region  of  the  great  lakes  and  the  Mississippi  valley  and  to 
monopolize  its  commerce.  In  the  year  1677  La  Salle  again 
betook  himself  to  France  in  order  to  win  over  to  his  cause 
Colbert,  the  influential  minister  of  Louis,  and  again  he  was 
eminently  successful.  He  returned  to  his  colony  with  extended 
authority,  enormous  land  grants,  valuable  privileges,  among 
them  the  monopoly  of  trading  in  buffalo  hides,  considerable 
money  and  trusty  subordinates  and  business  associates.  Among 
the  men  under  his  leadership  were  the  Italian  Chevalier  de 
Tonti,  who  afterwards,  as  La  Salle's  trusty  friend  and  lieu- 
tenant, played  an  important  role  in  the  history  of  Illinois,  and 
the  Franciscan  monk,  Louis  Hennepin,  the  discoverer  of  coal 
in  America,  (near  Ottawa,  111.)  who  afterwards  made  a  repu- 
tation by  his  thorough  exploration  of  the  upper  Mississippi  and 
discovery  of  St.  Anthony's  Falls. 

Incidental  mention  may  here  be  made  of  the  characteristic 
fact  that  in  furthering  La  Salle's  plans,  the  French  govern- 
ment by  no  means  had  in  view  the  development  of  the  rich 
resources  of  the  immense  territory  in  which  he  was  to  rule.  It 
hoped  that  the  young  explorer  might  discover  an  easy  road  to 
Mexico,  then  regarded  as  the  inexhaustible  Dorado  from  which 
Louis'  ever-empty  coffers  might  be  replenished. 

In  November,  1678,  bold,  pious  and  joyous,  La  Salle's 
expedition  started  off  for  its  distant  goal.  He  was  glad, 
indeed,  to  leave  behind  him  the  creditors  who  made  his  life  a 
burden,  and  the  Canadian  traders,  who,  fearing  his  competi- 
tion, harassed  him  in  every  possible  manner.  From  the  wild 
men  and  wild  beasts  among  whom  he  was  going  he  had  nothing 
to  fear.  He  was  leaving  his  enemies  behind. 

The  winter  of  1678-79  he  passed  above  Niagara  Falls 
and  there  built  a  small  vessel,  which  he  called  the  "  Griffon," 

23 


and  which  was  launched  in  August,  1679.  September  18  he 
sent  the  "Griffon"  back  to  Canada  heavily  laden  with  furs, 
which  were  to  appease  his  clamorous  creditors.  From  Green 
Bay,  where  he  had  laden  his  vessel,  La  Salle  pushed  on  in  four 
canoes,  going  down  the  west  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  past 
the  present  site  of  Chicago,  and  up  the  eastern  shore  to  the 
mouth  of  the  St.  Joseph  river,  where  the  little  band  of  explorers 
— La  Salle  with  nineteen  companions,  among  them  two  mis- 
sionaries— landed  November  i.  Here  La  Salle  expected  to  find 
his  friend,  Tonti,  with  twenty  men  who  were  to  have  made  the 
trip  down  the  eastern  shore,  but  they  did  not  appear  until 
three  weeks  later.  On  this  spot  La  Salle  built  a  fortified  camp 
(Fort  Miami)  in  which  he  left  a  small  garrison,  and  then  con- 
tinued the  expedition  up  the  St.  Joseph,  through  the  Kankakee, 
into  the  Illinois  river,  and  to  the  great  Indian  village,  La  Van- 
turn.  This,  however,  he  found  entirely  abandoned. 

On  January  4,  1680,  La  Salle  came  to  Peoria  lake,  and 
on  it  he  found  a  village  of  the  Peoria  Indians.  The  conduct 
of  these  Indians,  and  the  fact  that  six  of  his  men  had  deserted, 
caused  him  to  erect  a  fort  in  this  neighborhood,  which,  for 
obvious  reasons,  he  called  "Crevecoeur" — "Heavy  Heart." 
From  every  side  misfortune  befell  him.  His  patience  and 
endurance  were  submitted  to  the  severest  tests.  The  first  thing 
he  learned  after  his  arrival  among  the  Peorias  was  that  his 
creditors  had  seized  his  possessions  in  Canada,  and  that  the 
"  Griffon,"  which  he  had  daily  expected  with  almost  indispens- 
able supplies,  had  been  sunk.  To  arrange  his  affairs  at  home, 
La  Salle  had  to  hurry  thither  as  quickly  as  possible — hurry  in 
winter,  with  the  rivers  and  lakes  covered  with  ice,  a  distance 
of  over  a  thousand  miles. 

His  trusty  friend,  Tonti,  with  a  part  of  the  men,  he  left  in 
the  new  fort ;  another  party  he  sent  down  the  Mississippi  with 
Father  Hennepin  and  one  Indian,  and  four  Frenchmen  he  took 
with  him  to  Canada.  He  started  March  ist,  reached  the  St. 
Joseph  river  March  24th  and  Fort  Frontenac,  his  home,  on  May 

24 


6th,  having  accomplished  this  terribly  trying  journey  in  65  days. 
While  La  Salle  in  the  north  was  moving  heaven  and  earth 
to  straighten  out  his  affairs  and  to  obtain  new  means  for  his 
various  enterprises,  a  fateful  tragedy  occurred  at  Fort  Heavy 
Heart.  On  his  way  to  La  Vantum,  La  Salle  had  noticed  a 


STARVED  ROCK. 

great  rock  on  the  Illinois  river  (eight  miles  from  the  present 
city  of  Ottawa),  where  later  the  Illini  were  overcome  by  their 
terrible  fate.  Since  that  time  it  has  been  known  as  "  Starved 
Rock."  It  is  an  erratic  block,  135  feet  high,  completely 

25 


isolated,  and  with  an  upper  surface  of  three-fourths  of  an  acre. 
It  is  absolutely  inaccessible,  except  by  one  small,  steep  path  on 
the  eastern  side. 

Appreciating  the  strategic  importance  of  this  point,  La 
Salle,  on  his  departure,  commissioned  Tonti  to  erect  a  fort  on 
top  of  the  rock.  Tonti,  jointly  with  the  missionaries,  Membre 
and  Ribourde,  and  three  other  Frenchmen,  immediately  set  to 
work,  leaving  the  rest  of  the  men  with  the  provisions,  ammuni- 
tion and  other  supplies  at  Fort  "  Heavy  Heart."  To  his  great 
amazement,  Tonti  discovered  a  few  days  afterwards  that  the 
fort  had  been  plundered  and  destroyed  by  its  own  garrison, 
and  that  the  latter  had  fled.  He  immediately  dispatched  two 
messengers  to  inform  La  Salle  of  this  new  misfortune,  and 
with  the  few  men  who  had  remained  faithful  to  him  retired  to 
La  Vantum,  where  he  spent  the  summer.  The  two  messen- 
gers on  the  way  north  learned  that  the  deserters  had  also  ran- 
sacked Fort  Miami  and  the  large  fur  depots  at  Mackinac,  but 
succeeded  in  advising  La  Salle  in  time  for  him  to  capture  the 
insurgents  after  killing  two  of  them.  The  remainder  were 
sent  to  Quebec,  where  they  were  properly  punished. 

Alarmed  at  the  possible  fate  of  his  friend  Tonti,  La  Salle, 
August  loth,  1680,  with  a  force  of  twenty  picked  men, 
once  more  started  on  a  trip  to  the  Illinois  country.  Exactly  a 
month  later  the  blood-thirsty  Iroquois  again  made  a  raid  on 
the  peaceful  Illini  in  La  Vantum,  and  during  this  attack  the 
flourishing  settlement  was  entirely  destroyed,  1,200  of  the  Illini 
massacred,  and  the  remainder  driven  across  the  Mississippi. 
Even  the  burying  ground  of  their  victims  was  not  spared.  The 
hostile  Iroquois  dug  up  the  dead,  scattered  the  bones  on  the 
ground  and  stuck  the  skulls  up  on  long  poles.  Tonti  and  his 
men  fled,  but  during  their  escape  Father  Ribourde  was  mur- 
dered by  a  Kickapoo.  Completely  exhausted,  they  finally 
found  shelter  among  the  Pottawatomies. 

It  was  the  4th  of  November  when  La  Salle  reached  the 
mouth  of  the  St.  Joseph  and  learned  from  the  Miamis  the  sad 

26 


fate  of  affairs.  Crevecoeur,  whither  he  next  went,  was  a  scene 
of  the  cruelest  devastation,  with  wolves  battling  with  each 
other  over  the  unburied  bodies  of  the  slain.  Hoping  to  find 
traces  of  Tonti,  La  Salle  went  down  to  the  mouth  of  the  Illi- 
nois. In  vain.  On  a  tree  he  fastened  a  letter  for  his  missing 
friend,  and  near  by  left  a  canoe,  some  furs  and  an  axe,  and 
then  turned  back  to  Fort  Miami,  which  he  reached  January  31, 
1 68 1.  The  rest  of  the  winter  he  spent  in  allying  to  himself 
the  Indians  of  the  region,  and  on  the  25  of  May,  having  learned 
from  a  Pottowatomie  that  Tonti  was  still  alive,  hastened  to 
Mackinac,  where  the  two  friends  met  again. 

La  Salle  had  reason  enough  to  rejoice,  for  the  dangers  and 
difficulties  which  beset  his  undertakings  were  scarcely  to  be 
overcome  and  he  more  than  ever  needed  the  services  of 
the  cautious  but  energetic  Tonti.  As  bad  news  came 
from  Fort  Frontenac  the  two  straightway  returned  to 
Canada.  Of  course  it  was  money  that  had  caused  the  trouble 
— old  debts  that  La  Salle  had  contracted  to  further  his 
scheme.  With  the  aid  of  Governor  Frontenac  and  rich  rela- 
tives La  Salle  again  extricated  himself  from  his  difficulties  and 
even  succeeded  in  raising  means  for  another  expedition  to  the 
goal  of  his  ambition — the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  consisted  of 
twenty-three  Frenchmen,  eighteen  Indians,  ten  squaws  and 
three  papooses  and  on  December  23,  1681  they  sailed  off  in 
Indian  canoes.  Their  first  destination  was  the  Chekogoua 
river  (as  it  is  spelled  in  a  report  of  La  Salle)  where  Tonti 
with  seven  men  had  already  gone. 

The  title  "Chekogoua"  river  is  here  applied  to  the  Calu- 
met and  in  the  early  days  it  was  very  often,  not  only  in  verbal 
intercourse,  but  even  in  writings  and  on  maps  applied  with  the 
most  varied  orthography,  to  the  St.  Joseph,  Des  Plaines  and 
Illinois  rivers.  On  the  oldest  maps  the  present  Chicago  river 
does  not  appear  at  all  and  in  later  years  is  given  simply  as  a 
canal.  No  especial  importance  was  ever  attached  to  it  by  the 
poineers.  The  origin  of  the  name  can  be  only  conjectured. 

27 


By  "  Getchi-ka-go  "  the  Illini  meant  something  big  and  strong, 
by  "Shecaugo,"  pleasant  water;  in  the  dialect  of  the  Potta- 
watomies  "Choc-ca-go"  signified  a  desert;  the  Chippewas 
called  the  skunk  "Shegog"  and  the  wild  skunkweed  "She- 
gougawinze,"  and  in  many  of  the  writings  of  the  second  half 
of  the  eighteenth  century  we  find  the  expression  "  Chicagou, 
or  Garlic  creek."  One  can  therefore  attach  such  significance 
to  the  name  "  Chicago "  as  suits  his  own  fancy.  The  fact, 
however,  that  in  former  times,  there  were  in  this  vicinity  great 
quantities  of  wild  skunkweed  (allium  ursinum)  would  suggest 
that  the  Indian  probably  called  the  stream  "  Schegog "  river 
(skunk  river)  on  this  account.  The  Calumet  in  those  days 
formed  the  chief  means  of  communication  between  Lake 
Michigan  and  the  Illinois  and  Mississipi  rivers,  but  sometimes, 
depending  on  the  state  of  the  weather,  the  time  of  the  year  and 
the  amount  of  water  in  the  streams,  the  St.  Joseph  or  the  present 
Chicago  river  was  chosen.  The  chief  thing  to  consider  was 
always  the  "  portage,"  that  is,  the  places  where  on  account  of 
the  interruption  of  the  navigable  waters,  both  boat  and  con- 
tents had  to  be  carried. 

But  let  us  return  to  our  Argonauts  who  had  been  rowing 
down  the  Des  Plaines  to  the  Illinois  river  and  on  this,  past 
many  devastated  Indian  villages  to  its  confluence  wyith  the 
Mississippi,  at  which  point  they  landed  February  6,  1682. 

At  first  detained  by  ice  and  later  by  his  many  sojourns  in 
Indian  villages  along  the  route,  La  Salle  finally  passed  the 
mouth  of  the  Arkansas  March  12,  and  at  last  on  April  7, 
had  the  joy  of  reaching  the  valiantly  and  persistently  fought 
for  goal  of  his  hopes  and  ambitions — the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
Amid  the  singing  of  the  Te  Deum  and  huzzas  for  the  king  of 
France,  all  of  which  sounded  strangely  enough  in  the  magni- 
ficent wilderness,  a  pillar  was  erected  bearing  the  French 
arms,  and  La  Salle,  "  by  virtue  of  his  right  as  discoverer  and 
with  the  consent  of  the  natives,"  took  formal  possession  of  the 
spot  on  which  he  had  landed  (in  the  region  which  Hennepin 

28 


at  an  earlier  period  had  named  Louisiana  in  honor  of 
Louis  XIV)  as  well  as  of  "all  the  territories  and  provinces 
lying  along  the  shores  of  the  Mississippi  and  of  the  cities, 
mines  and  fisheries  therein  contained,"  from  the  Alleghanies 
to  the  Rocky  mountains.  (*) 

The  next  work  for  La  Salle  was  to  properly  fortify  the 
newly  discovered  country.  But  here  again  he  had  to  meet 
his  old  difficulties  and  indeed  in  increased  measure.  His 
means  and  the  greatness  of  his  undertakings  were  in  pitiful 
contrast.  The  Canadian  merchants  feared  that  his  increasing 
influence  would  prove  injurious  to  their  interests  and  sought  to 
injure  him.  His  creditors  were  clamorous  as  ever  and  to  fill 
the  measure  of  his  misfortune  his  friend  Frontenac,  through 
the  influence  of  the  Canadian  Jesuits,  was  relieved  of  his  posi- 
tion as  governor  and  replaced  by  De  La  Barre — a  man  any- 
thing but  kindly  disposed  toward  La  Salle. 

Two  days  after  taking  possession  of  Louisiana  La  Salle 
started  on  his  homeward  journey.  In  December  of  the  same 
year  he  had  reached  that  great  rock  in  the  neighborhood  of 
La  Vantum  whose  intended  fortification  had  brought  such  dis- 
aster to  poor  Tonti.  Now,  however,  the  scene  was  joyously 
animated;  a  strange,  gay  picture  presented  itself  to  the  view 
of  the  returning  voyager.  The  great  rock  was  properly  for- 
tified and  called  Fort  St.  Louis.  Under  its  protection  the 
chief  tribes  of  the  Indians  who  had  allied  themselves  with  the 
French  had  again  assembled.  To  the  south  of  the  fort  were 
the  Illini,  numbering  7,000  souls;  about  2,000  Miamis  had 
chosen  a  dwelling  place  on  the  neighboring  "  Buffalo  "  island 
on  the  north  side  of  the  river;  to  the  east  were  200  Shawnees 
and  600  Pickashaws — in  all  not  less  than  3,880  Indian  war- 
riors were  gathered  around  the  fortress.  In  addition  there 

*  This  event,  so  fateful  in  the  historical  development  of  our  country,  gave  the 
French  possession  of  the  greatest  and  most  important  part  of  the  New  World,  and  took 
place  scarcely  six  months  after  that  great  marauder.  Lfiuis  XIV,  had  surprised  the  rich 
and  beautiful  city  of  Strassburg  in  the  midst  of  peace  and  wrenched  it  from  the  German 
empire,  and  at  the  same  time  that  his  allies,  the  Turks,  were  marching  on,  plundering 
and  burning  as  they  went,  to  attack  the  \valls  of  Vienna. 

29 


was  the  usual  large  number  of  camp  followers  and  hangers  on, 
who,  despite  their  white  skins,  did  not  constitute  the  best  ele- 
ment in  the  new  settlement.  Many  of  these  men  had  become 
wholly  savage,  both  in  body  and  mind,  as  far  as  appearances 
went  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from  the  most  neglected  of 
the  red  skins  and  in  their  moral  conduct  far  worse.  Some, 
however,  were  honest  fellows,  skilled  in  hunting  and  trapping, 
or  industrious  farmers  or  mechanics,  who  carried  on  their  var- 
ious trades  and  so  put  upon  the  little  community  springing  up 
in  the  far  west,  the  stamp  of  European  civilization.  Here 
were  the  primitive  elements  for  a  future  great  city  and  the 
brave  explorer  and  leader  seemed  at  last  to  have  a  fair  pros- 
pect of  carrying  out  his  bold  plans.  Very  many  western 
cities  and  future  great  cities  were,  scarcely  more  than  a 
generation  ago,  in  a  worse  condition  than  Fort  St.  Louis.  The 
best  understanding  existed  between  La  Salle  and  his  Indians. 
He  afforded  them  effective  protection  and  labored  to  instruct 
and  elevate  them.  They,  on  the  other  hand,  made  his 
profitable  fur  trade  possible,  exchanging  all  kinds  of  skins  for 
weapons,  ammunition,  calico,  agricultural  implements,  trinkets 
for  the  women  and  other  supplies.  The  summer  which  La 
Salle  spent  in  the  colony  which  he  himself  had  founded  formed 
the  few  days  of  real  happiness  which  he  had  enjoyed  since  the 
time  when,  as  a  youth,  his  heart  full  of  high  hopes,  he  had  first 
touched  the  soil  of  the  New  World.  Toward  fall  however  his 
troubles  returned. 

First  the  necessary  supplies  from  the  north  ceased  and  then 
his  agents  there  were  prevented  from  returning  to  the  colony 
and  it  was  again  molested  by  the  Iroquois.  His  land-grant 
— Frontenac — was  seized  upon  by  the  provincial  government 
under  some  vain  pretext,  and  finally,  to  add  the  last  drop  to 
the  cup  of  his  unhappiness,  La  Salle  was  deprived  of  his  com- 
mand of  Fort  St.  Louis,  that  child  born  of  his  sorrows,  and 
one  Chevalier  de  Beaugis  made  commandant — leaving  the 
intrepid  explorer,  dishonored,  robbed,  homeless.  It  was  the 


before  mentioned  Governor  De  La  Barre  who  was  responsible 
for  this  foul  blot  on  the  page  of  French  history  in  America. 
That  his  trusted  friend  Tonti  was  allowed  to  remain  in  the 
colony  was  the  only  circumstance  to  lighten  the  sorrow  of  La 
Salle's  leave-taking.  Woodland  and  meadow  were  covered 
by  the  gray  mists  of  autumn  when  the  sore-tried  man  cast  his 
last  glance  upon  the  young  creation  of  his  unselfish  energy. 

In  the  spring  of  1684  La  Salle  was  again  in  Paris. 
After  having  again  triumphed  over  his  enemies  he  busied 
himself  with  preparations  on  a  large  scale  for  a  new  expedi- 
tion to  America.  Four  ships  were  equipped  and  manned  with 
100  soldiers;  mechanics  and  common  laborers  flocked  to  La 
Salle,  and  even  a  few  dozen  bankrupt  nobles  and  speculators 
joined  his  standard.  Their  destination  was  the  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi.  A  naval  officer  named  Beaujeu  commanded  the 
squadron.  But  even  on  the  voyage  across  the  ocean  some 
serious  misunderstandings  arose  between  this  man  and  La 
Salle.  When  entering  Matagorda  bay  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
one  of  the  vessels  containing  the  most  valuable  and  indispen- 
sible  supplies  and  implements  foundered  with  its  whole  cargo. 
Many  of  the  men  believed  that  this  catastrophe  was  simply  an 
act  of  revenge  on  the  part  of  Beaujeu.  The  expedition  had  got 
about  600  miles  too  far  west  and  La  Salle  made  a  fatal  error 
in  taking  Matagorda  bay  as  a  western  outlet  of  the  Mississippi. 
After  several  fruitless  endeavors  to  find  the  great  river 
Beaujeu  set  sail  with  his  squadron  for  home,  leaving  La  Salle 
and  the  colonists  on  the  Texan  coast.  The  privations  and 
miseries  of  the  new  comers  increased  from  day  to  day.  From 
day  to  day  it  was  more  difficult  for  La  Salle  to  maintain 
discipline.  With  a  courage  born  of  despair  he  tried  for  two 
years  to  find  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  in  order  to  obtain 
from  Canada  succor  for  his  starving  immigrants.  It  was  in 
March,  1687,  that,  during  one  of  his  searching  expeditions  he 
got  in  a  western  outlet  of  the  Trinity  river,  about  the  present 
site  of  Galveston,  and  here  the  bold  explorer  was  overtaken  by 


his  tragic  fate.  He  was  murdered  from  ambush  by  one  of 
his  own  men.  Shot  through  the  head  he  silently  breathed  his 
last,  but  his  death  marks  the  beginning  of  the  end  of  the 
French  rule  in  the  New  World.  His  contemporaries  had 
neither  the  sense  to  appreciate  nor  the  ability  to  maintain  the 
advantages  which  his  venturesome  spirit  and  marvelous  energy 
had  gained  for  his  fatherland.  Besides,  that  crowned  robber, 
Louis  XIV  and  his  ministers,  were  at  that  time  too  much 
busied  with  plundering  Europe  to  form  an  idea  of  developing 
the  immeasurable  resources  of  the  New  World,  the  full  extent 
of  which  they  had  not  even  a  vague  notion.  The  famous 
devastation  of  the  Palatinate  by  the  French  commenced  about 
two  years  after  La  Salle's  assassination  and  from  that  time  on 
for  fully  eight  years,  they  were  occupied  with  the  work  of 
destruction  in  Germany.  Then  up  to  I7J4  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  succession  prevented  Louis  from  interesting  himself 
in  the  works  of  peace  in  his  trans- Atlantic  possessions.  Thus 
it  was  that  the  French  never  brought  any  of  La  Salle's  far- 
reaching  plans  into  reality. 

About  the  same  time  that  La  Salle  arrived  in  Paris  on  his 
last  trip,  the  Iroquois,  2,000  strong,  appeared  before  his  rocky 
fortress  on  the  Illinois  river.  But  the  stronghold  proved  to  be 
a  complete  success  and  Tonti,  after  six  days  of  seige,  punished 
the  hostile  redskins  so  thoroughly  that  they  never  had  any 
desire  to  return. 

In  the  year  1686,  while  La  Salle  was  wandering  along  the 
Texan  coast  seeking  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  Tonti, 
apprehensive  for  his  friend's  fate,  organized  an  expedition  for 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  but  had  to  come  back  without  accomplish- 
ing anything.  Returning  to  the  fort  he  learned  of  the  sad 
death  of  La  Salle,  whereupon  he  again  went  south,  visited  the 
scene  of  the  tragedy  and  provided  for  the  helpless  immi- 
grants. Later  with  fifty  of  his  own  men  and  200  Indians 
Tonti  made  a  successful  campaign  against  the  Iroquois  in 
Canada.  His  return  from  there  to  the  fort  caused  quite  a 

32 


change  in  the  life  and  activity  of  the  colonists,  inasmuch  as  the 
families  of  many  of  the  soldiers,  hunters  and  traders  came 
with  him  to  join  the  settlement  around  the  fort  Their  arrival 
was  the  signal  for  an  almost  endless  jollification  and  formed 
the  beginning  of  the  development  of  family  life  in  the  new 
community.  This  does  not  signify  however  that  the  new 
commonwealth  distinguished  itself  as  a  model  of  morals  and 
manners.  Quite  the  contrary.  After  the  inhabitants  were 
freed  from  the  fear  of  the  Iroquois,  they,  whites  as  well  as 
Indians,  gave  themselves  up  to  unbounded  excesses.  The  great 
mistake  of  the  French  leaders  was  that  they  neglected  to 
create  a  solid  moral  and  material  basis  for  the  colony  by 
fostering  agriculture  and  industry.  It  was  impossible  also  to 
keep  from  the  colony  a  class  of  people  who  had  left  their 
country  only  for  their  country's  good  and  whose  intercourse 
with  the  Indians  acted  like  the  breath  of  a  pestilence.  Upon 
the  redskins  the  missionaries  after  all  never  gained  much  hold 
in  spite  of  untold  efforts  and  terrible  privations.  On  the  whole 
the  Indian  has  very  little  talent  for  Christianity  and  when  he 
allowed  himself  to  be  "converted"  he  did  so  largely  "for 
revenue  only."  The  copper-colored  aborigines  were  far 
more  partial  to  the  fire-water  of  the  French  traders  than  to 
the  holy  water  of  the  French  priests.  All  these  circum- 
stances acted  against  the  healthy  development  of  the  young 
community ;  it  was  a  scrofulous  condition  of  affairs. 

What  a  difference  between  this  French  colony  and  that 
founded  by  Pastorius  in  Germantown  at  almost  exactly  the 
same  time !  From  the  first  the  Pennsylvania  settlement  was  a 
model  of  industry,  good  order,  earnest  endeavor  and  excellent 
morals.  Not  that  its  founders  rested  on  beds  of  roses,  for 
Pastorius  himself  writes  that  "  enough  can  neither  be  written 
nor  believed  by  our  more  favored  descendants,  of  the  extent 
of  the  poverty  and  destitution  in  which  this  Germantownship 
was  founded  by  colonists,  distinguished  alike  for  their  Christian 
frugality  and  indefatigable  industry." 

3  33 


The  German  settlement  received  at  the  beginning  a  town- 
ship organization  and  judiciary.  Property  rights  were  strictly 
regulated  and  official  records  kept.  Agriculture,  viticulture 
and  various  industries  were  developed,  and  in  1691  the  first 
paper  mill  in  America  was  established  there.  There,  also,  at 
this  early  period  the  first  agitation  against  slavery  in  this 
country  was  inaugurated,  an  event  which  John  G.  Whittier 
extolled  in  his  poem,  "The  Pennsylvania  Pilgrim."  In  a 
comparison  between  the  development  of  Germantown  and  Fort 
St.  Louis  lies  the  explanation  of  the  historical  fact  that  while 
the  Germans  have  come  to  be  an  important  element  in  the 
New  World,  the  French  influence  was  only  transitory  and 
local,  and  left  no  perceptible  stamp  on  the  national  develop- 
ment, neither  socially  nor  politically. 

In  1702  Fort  St.  Louis,  the  population  of  which  had  given 
itself  up  to  a  happy-go-lucky  mode  of  existence,  was  abandoned 
by  the  Canadian  government.  Poor  Tonti  lost  his  position 
and  possessions,  but  afterwards  participated  in  the  colonization 
of  Louisiana  and  died  a  poor  pauper  in  a  little  settlement  on 
Mobile  bay.  Fort  St.  Louis  existed,  but  only  as  a  trading 
post,  until  1718,  when  it  was  totally  destroyed  by  the  Indians 
of  the  vicinity.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  savages  gave 
as  an  excuse  for  this  act  the  statement  that  the  French  had 
become  intolerably  immoral.  Intolerance  from  a  moral  point 
of  view  and  supersensitiveness  were  never  prominent  charac- 
teristics of  the  Indian  nature.  Their  peculiar  act  and  more 
peculiar  explanation,  therefore,  form  a  valuable  commentary 
on  the  methods  of  life  then  and  there  prevailing.  As  a  whole 
the  Illini  lost  more  than  they  gained  by  their  intercourse  with 
the  French,  and  the  brandy  introduced  by  the  latter  had  as 
demoralizing  an  effect  as  opium  exerts  on  the  Chinese. 
Effeminated  and  morally  corrupted,  these  Indian  associates  of 
the  French  soon  became  unable  to  defend  themselves  against 
their  robust  enemies  in  the  north  and  east;  most  of  them, 
therefore,  went  south,  down  the  Mississippi,  where  they 

34 


dissolved  their  tribal  relations,  and,  to  a  large  extent,  were  lost 
sight  of.  Those  that  remained  in  their  old  country,  the  last  of 
their  tribe,  were  the  victims  of  a  cruel  fate.  Under  the  pre- 
text of  their  having  been  implicated  in  the  murder  of  the 
Ottawa  chief,  Pontiac,  whose  death  was  probably  instigated 
by  the  English,  the  remnant  of  the  Illini  was  surprised  by  his 
tribe  (1769)  and  driven  to  their  old  settlement  at  La  Vantum, 
where  a  bloody  engagement  took  place.  Beaten  here,  they 
fell  back,  under  cover  of  a  stormy  night,  to  the  isolated  rock 
where  once  stood  La  Salle's  formidable  Fort  St.  Louis.  Here 
they  sustained  a  twelve  days'  seige,  at  the  end  of  which  their 
provisions  were  completely  exhausted.  Then  those  who  still 
felt  strength  enough  for  the  ordeal  left  their  rocky  eyrie  to 
sell  their  lives  as  dearly  as  possible.  They  were  slaughtered 
to  the  last  man.  With  a  wild  war-whoop  the  cruel  enemy, 
after  this  bath  of  blood,  hurried  up  the  rock,  where  the  mad 
carnage  began  anew.  Pitilessly  the  tomahawk  flew  through 
the  air  and  fell  upon  the  heads  of  the  poor  victims  who,  sick 
and  exhausted,  had  remained  behind.  Only  one,  an  Indian 
half-breed,  escaped  from  the  terrible  butchery.  Such  was  the 
end  of  this  once  numerous  and  powerful  tribe,  which  has  given 
our  state  its  name,  and  which  not  only  always  kept  faith  with 
the  white  pioneers,  but  even  helped  them  in  their  enterprises. 
Verily  they  merited  a  better  fate — the  poor  Illini. 

After  the  peace  of  Ryswick  (1697),  which  put  an  end  to 
his  plundering  and  devastation  in  Europe,  Louis  XIV  again 
found  leisure  to  cultivate  his  trans- Atlantic  colonies.  He  es- 
tablished a  fort  in  Louisiana,  but  its  existence  was  precarious. 
First,  the  garrison  and  settlers  were  attacked  by  yellow  fever, 
and  later,  on  account  of  being  fully  occupied  with  the  war  of 
the  Spanish  succession,  Louis  found  himself  unable  to  assist  his 
Mississippi  fort.  In  consequence  of  this  the  French  saw 
themselves  obliged  to  govern  Louisiana  independently  of 
Canada,  or,  more  properly  speaking,  to  turn  their  southern 
possessions  over  to  the  tender  mercies  of  a  set  of  tax 

35 


gatherers  different  from  those  who  bled  the  colonists  elsewhere. 
Boomers  began  to  turn  their  attention  to  the  valley  of 
the  lower  Mississippi,  which  they  expected  to  find  a  land 
of  fabulous  wealth.  The  Scotchman,  John  Law,  to  whom 
the  inflationists  and  silver  cranks  ought  long  ago  to  have 
reared  a  monument;  that  prince  of  financial  jugglers  and 
speculators,  who,  by  his  bank  of  issue,  contributed  so  much  to 
the  financial  and  moral  ruin  of  France  in  the  reign  of  Louis- 
XV,  established  the  India  company  (Compagnie  de  1'Inde), 
which  leased  from  the  French  government  the  exclusive  right. 
to  "govern"  and  tax  the  provinces  of  Louisiana  and  Illinois, 
acquired  the  monopoly  of  the  tobacco,  slave,  East  India,  China 
and  South  Sea  Island  trade,  and  procured  the  sole  privilege  of 
refining  gold  and  silver.  Under  the  influence  of  this  rich  and 
powerful  company,  and  especially  under  the  bold  schemer  Law, 
there  began  in  the  colonies  on  the  Gulf,  the  Mississippi  and  in 
Illinois,  an  activity  that  was  lively  in  spite  of  being  unhealthy, 
forced  and  tainted  with  fraud.  In  1718  New  Orleans  was 
founded  and  near  Kaskaskia,  in  the  Mississippi  bottom,  Fort 
Chartres,  and  this  post,  around  which  a  flourishing,  industrious 
and,  considering  the  times,  even  fashionable  little  city  devel- 
oped, was  henceforth  the  seat  of  the  French  government  in 
Illinois.  In  that  year  not  less  than  800  immigrants  landed  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  and  from  then  on  they  came  at 
regular  intervals  and  in  great  numbers.  Many  negro  slaves 
were  also  brought  to  the  new  colonies.  In  i722>  in  Cahokia, 
as  well  as  in  Kaskaskia,  mills,  factories  and  stores  were  erected. 
In  Kaskaskia  a  stone  church  and  a  stone  dwelling  house  for 
the  Jesuits  were  erected.  The  settlement  of  the  whole  terri- 
tory from  New  Orleans  to  Kaskaskia  was  so  rapid  that  its 
division  into  nine  civil  and  military  districts  was  considered 
necessary.  Illinois,  the  seventh  district,  was,  next  to  that  at 
New  Orleans,  the  largest  and  most  thickly  settled.  The  com- 
merce of  Illinois  was  henceforth  carried  on,  not  by  way  of 
Canada,  but  via  New  Orleans,  which  city  gained  rapidly  in 

36 


importance.  In  the  year  1732  the  India  Company  was  dissolved 
and  from  then  on  the  colonies  were  again  governed  by 
French  officers  whose  rule,  if  never  brilliant,  was  at  least 
tolerable.  After  an  unfortunate  campaign  against  the  Chick- 
asaws,  during  which  the  youthful  commander  of  the  Illinois 
district,  Pierre  d'Artaguiette,  together  with  some  of  his  officers 
and  two  missionaries,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Indians  and 
were  burned  at  the  stake,  the  Illinois  colony  enjoyed  a  long 
and  profitable  peace,  while  commerce,  agriculture  and  manu- 
factures developed  very  satisfactorily.  Thus,  for  instance, 
not  less  than  1,000  sacks  of  flour  were  sent  by  them  in  1745 
to  the  New  Orleans  market,  with  a  large  quantity  of  lard, 
hides,  leather,  lumber,  lead,  furs  and  even  wine.  The  trans- 
portation was  effected  in  clumsy  barges,  which  usually  traveled 
together,  and  a  round  trip  from  New  Orleans  to  Kaskaskia 
ordinarily  lasted  four  to  five  months.  But  these  long  and 
slow  journeys  were  were  not  devoid  of  pleasure.  The  boat- 
men landed  in  friendly  settlements  and  enjoyed  fishing,  hunting 
and  other  sports.  The  return  of  these  barges  from  the  young 
metropolis  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  was  usually  the 
cause  for  great  jollification,  for  they  not  only  brought  new 
supplies  of  sugar,  rice,  tobacco,  ammunition,  etc.,  but  also 
news  from  abroad  and  letters  from  home. 

It  can  well  be  said  that  about  the  middle  of  the  i8th 
century  the  French  colonies  in  Illinois  reached  their  highest 
point  of  prosperity.  Spared  the  attacks  of  hostile  Indians  and 
other  calamities  since  1736,  they  could  develop  themselves  nat- 
urally and  according  to  their  inherent  peculiarities,  and  that  is 
what  they  did.  But  the  end  was  pitiful. 

"  The  last  result  of  wisdom  stamps  this  true : 

He  only, earns  his  freedom  and  existence 
Who  daily  conquers  them  anew." 

The  last  of  the  French  colonial  days  in  North  America  re- 
mind one  vividly  of  these  words  of  Faust.  Here  the  material 
prosperity  caused  the  moral  downfall.  Man  cannot  live  by 

37 


bread  alone.  The  leading  spirits,  busied  with  cares  for  the 
material  welfare  of  the  colonists,  neglected  their  spiritual  and 
moral  needs;  the  commonwealth  lacked  in  ideal  force,  in 
spiritual  endeavor;  it  stagnated  and  the  rank  growth  of  a 
coarse  sensuality  killed  out  the  tender  shoots  of  the  growing 
state  so  that  its  total  destruction  was  only  a  question  of  time. 
Bold  and  energetic  as  the  French  were  in  discovering  and 
exploring  new  territories,  they  were  weak  and  unsuccess- 
ful in  the  maintenance  and  organic  development  of  the  same, 
in  state  formation.  For  eighty  long  years  they  reigned  unin- 
terruptedly over  the  immense  and  rich  domain  stretching  from 
the  St.  Lawrence  and  great  lakes  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
They  erected  forts,  trading  posts  and  missions ;  but  in  spite  of 
all  their  efforts  they  did  not  succeed  in  colonizing  more  than 
4,000  whites  in  their  enormous  possessions.  While  fully  ap- 
preciative of  their  great  services  in  the  exploration  of  the  New 
World  and  their  attempted  civilization  of  the  natives,  we  can- 
not exempt  the  French  missionaries  from  censure  for  their 
neglect  to  use  their  influence  and  means  to  establish  public 
schools  and  to  foster  the  education  and  elevation  of  the  com- 
mon people.  Significant  is  the  single  fact  that  during  the 
whole  French  rule,  from  beginning  to  end  (after  the  battle  of 
Quebec,  September  I3th,  1759),  not  a  printing  press  was  to 
be  found  in  any  of  their  colonies,  while  in  the  other  colonies 
newspapers  and  books  aided  materially  in  the  intellectual 
growth  of  the  commonwealth. 

The  northern  part  of  Illinois,  especially  the  region  of  the 
present  Chicago,  was  totally  neglected  by  the  French  after 
the  death  of  La  Salle.  Only  when  the  Anglo-Saxon 
appeared,  were  the  first  foundations  laid  for  the  Wonder  city 
of  to-day. 


PART  TWO. 

The  Rule  of  the  English — Emigration  of  the  French — The  Pontlac  War — A  Fateful 
Love  Intrigue — Pontiac's  Tragic  End — The  Americans  Take  the  Helm. 

"  Short  is  the  reign  of  tyrants,"  says  an  old  proverb, 
and  short  was  the  English  reign  over  the  conquered  north- 
west. Of  small  advantage  was  it  to  either  the  ruled  or  the 
rulers,  and  as  far  as  the  latter  were  concerned,  it  was 
anything  but  creditable. 

At  the  time  the  British  rule  began  in  Illinois  there  were 
five  settlements,  having  a  total  white  population  of  1600 
persons,  divided  as  follows:  Kaskaskia  Joo,  Cahokia  450, 
New  Chartres  220,  Prairie  du  Rocher  no  and  St.  Philip  120. 
Fort  Chartres  was  the  last  French  military  post  to  pass  over 
into  the  hands  of  the  English.  It  was  October  10,  1765,  that 
the  French  flag  had  to  yield  to  the  English  on  the  walls  of 
the  fortress,  and  thus  disappeared  the  last  symbol  of  French 
rule  in  Illinois. 

It  goes  without  saying  that  the  French  immigrants  had  no 
love  for  these  conquerors.  Not  less  than  one-third  of  them 
preferred  to  leave  the  homes  they  had  won  after  so  many 
struggles  and  sacrifices,  rather  than  to  submit  to  the  rule  of 
the  despised  Britons.  They  went  to  New  Orleans, 
Natchez,  Baton  Rouge,  Genevieve  and  to  the  trading  post  of 
St.  Louis.  This  was  founded  in  1764  by  Pierre  Laclede  and 
about  it  there  soon  sprang  up  a  flourishing  little  village  which 
remains  to  mark  the  spot  to  this  day.  Only  one  man  was 
left  in  St.  Philip,  and  only  a  half-dozen  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Fort  Chartres  where  formerly  the  elite  of  the  French  pop- 
ulation had  been  found. 


39 


But  the  native  population  of  the  Illinois  district  was  far 
more  dissatisfied  with  the  new  order  of  affairs  than  even  the 
French.  Their  opposition  sprang  from  both  heart  and  head. 
The  French  had  never  been  despotic,  but  had  lived  with  them 
on  terms  of  friendship,  almost  of  equality,  sharing  with  them 
their  joys  and  sorrows,  instructing  them  and  even  intermarry- 
ing with  them,  so  that  it  galled  the  redskins  that  their  friends 
should  quietly  submit  to  the  rule  of  the  hated,  heartless,  sel- 
fish English.  In  regard  to  their  own  interests  too,  the  rule  of 
the  English  was  very  disagreeable  to  the  Indians — so  much  so 
that  they  at  once  set  about  opposing  them. 

The  seat  of  the  English  government  in  the  northwest  was 
at  that  time  Detroit,  which  in  1763  came  into  possession  of 
the  English,  and  was  put  under  the  command  of  Col.  Henry 
Hamilton,  lieutenant-governor  of  the  territory.  Some  of  the 
duties  of  this  gentleman  cannot  be  better  described  than  as  char- 
acteristically English.  Thus,  for  example,  he  was  instructed 
to  "drive  back  the  settlers  across  the  Alleghanies. "  For 
the  English  had  no  intention  of  colonizing  the  territory  of  the 
great  lakes  and  Mississippi  river;  they  wished  rather,  on 
account  of  import  and  export  trade,  to  have  the  settlements 
as  thickly  peopled  as  possible  along  the  coast.  Another 
order  given  the  commandant  at  Detroit,  was  to  cause  the 
Illinois  settlers,  who  rebelled  against  the  British  rule,  or 
rather  misrule,  and  also  their  Indian  allies,  to  be  tantalized 
and  opposed  by  Indians  from  the  northeast,  especially  by  the 
Iroquois  to  whom  the  government  did  not  hesitate  to  offer  a 
considerable  reward  for  any  scalps  they  brought  in,  whether 
of  men,  women  or  children. 

The  first  result  of  British  supremacy  in  the  northwest,  was 
the  so-called  Pontiac  war,  which  marks  the  bloodiest  epoch  in 
western  colonial  history. 

Pontiac,  a  chief  of  the  Ottawas,  and  the  recognized  leader 
of  the  whole  Algonquin  family,  an  Indian  of  imperious  nature 
and  far  more  than  average  ability,  formed  the  bold  plan 

40 


of  forcibly  putting  an  end  to  British  rule  in  the  northwest. 
His  remarkable  talent  and  his  almost  white  skin,  would 
suggest  that  this  crafty  warrior  was  a  French  half-breed; 
at  any  rate  he  succeeded,  without  raising  the  least  suspic- 
ion, in  forming  a  powerful  federation  of  the  Indians  of 
the  Ottawa,  Chippewa,  Pottawatomie,  Menominee,  Miami, 
Shawnee  and  Wyandotte  tribes.  He  then  arranged,  on  a 
certain  day  in  May,  1763,  to  capture,  either  through  force  or 
cunning,  all  the  forts  in  the  northwest  held  by  the  English. 
This  bold  plan,  which  was  executed  with  marvelous  skill, 
came  within  a  hair's  breadth  of  complete  success.  Mackinac, 
Sandusky,  Green  Bay,  St.  Joseph,  Presque  Isle  (Erie)  and 
Venango  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Indians.  But  Detroit,  the 
strongest,  and  strategically  the  most  important  point,  whose 
capture  Pontiac  himself  had  undertaken,  escaped  a  similar 
fate  through  chance.  Here  again  it  was  an  Indian  girl  who 
took  a  prominent  role,  and  thus  saved  the  English  garrison. 
She  belonged  to  the  Ojibway  tribe  and  had  a  love  affair — not 
a  Platonic  one — with  Major  Gladwin,  commander  of  the  troops 
stationed  at  Detroit.  Suspecting  the  danger  in  which  her 
lover  was  placed,  she  did  not  rest  until  she  had  fully  learned 
of  Pontiac's  plan  to  surprise  the  fort.  The  chief  and  400  of 
his  warriors,  each  with  his  weapons  concealed  under  his  blanket, 
entered  the  fort  with  permission  of  the  commander,  and 
according  to  program,  started  what  was  ostensibly  to  be  a 
peaceable  pow-wow.  It  had  been  arranged,  however,  by  the 
conspirators  that  at  a  signal  from  Pontiac,  the  unsuspecting 
garrison  should  be  attacked  and  murdered.  But  the  cunning 
Indian  had  not  made  his  reckoning  with  the  Ojibway  maiden, 
who  had  duly  informed  her  lover  of  all  that  was  going  on. 
Pontiac  in  the  grotesquely  solemn  fashion  of  the  Indians,  had 
begun  an  harangue  and  threateningly,  and  ever  more  threaten- 
ingly addressed  Gladwin,  who  was  quietly  sitting  before  him. 
The  critical  moment  seemed  to  be  at  hand.  Suddenly,  how- 
ever, there  sounded  a  peal  of  trumpets  and  a  roll  of  drums. 


In  a  moment  the  amazed  and  dumfounded  Indians  were 
surrounded  with  glittering  bayonets  and  drawn  sabres.  Rapid 
as  this  dramatic  transition  was,  the  change  in  the  conduct  of 
the  redskins,  and  in  the  tone  of  their  demands,  was  more  so, 
and  they  thanked  their  lucky  stars  when  they  were  finally 
dismissed  with  a  stern  warning,  but  with  whole  skins.  This 
scare  however  did  not  deter  them  from  making  an  attack  on 
the  fort  the  next  day.  But  they  were  repulsed.  Pontiac 
seemed  to  take  his  failure  and  humiliation  at  Gladwin's  hands 
very  much  to  heart,  and  for  three  months  harrassed  the  fort 
almost  daily,  making  several  particularly  desperate  but  unsuc- 
cessful attempts  to  capture  it.  When  he  finally  perceived 
that  he  had  underestimated  the  force  of  the  English  in  the  same 
degree  that  he  had  overestimated  the  power  of  the  Indian 
federation,  the  embittered  chief  turned  to  the  French  officers, 
who,  after  the  surrender  of  their  forts,  had  been  dismissed  on 
parole  by  the  English,  and  asked  aid  and  support  from  them. 
Indeed  he  dispatched  messengers  as  far  as  New  Orleans,  and 
could  not  comprehend  that  his  former  comrades  and  brothers- 
in-arms  had  to  look  idly  on  at  the  desperate  struggle  he  was 
waging  for  the  rights  of  both.  Many  another  bitter  conflict 
took  place  between  the  red  warriors  and  their  hated  English 
foes,  many  another  settlement  was  devastated,  and  many  an 
emigrant's  family  killed  or  dragged  into  slavery  before  Pontiac 
finally  (August  1765)  made  peace  in  the  name  of  all  the  tribes 
commanded  by  him.  Broken  in  spirit  and  bodily  strength,  the 
great  chieftain,  after  his  last  disaster,  disappears  from  the  scene 
of  events,  and  all  that  is  henceforth  heard  of  him,  is,  that  in 
April,  1769,  he  was  befuddled  with  liquor,  at  the  instance  of  an 
English  trader  named  Williamson,  and  murdered  by  a  Kaskas- 
kia  Indian.  St.  Ange,  the  gray-haired  commander  of  Fort 
Chartres,  felt  affection  enough  for  the  grim  warrior  to  have 
his  body  removed  to  St.  Louis  and  buried  there.  Thus  at 
least  his  bones  did  not  rest  in  hostile  earth,  and  none  of  the 
despised  English  could  tread  upon  the  grave  of  their  fallen  foe. 

42 


Had  Pontiac  lived  ten  years  longer,  he  would  have  had  the 
great  satisfaction  of  witnessing  the  disgraceful  defeat  of  the 
English  in  Illinois  and  the  final  dissolution  of  English  rule  in 
the  northwest. 

George  Rogers  Clark,  a  brilliant  and  patriotic  Kentuckian, 
conceived  the  idea  in  1778,  of  capturing  Fort  Chartres,  Kas- 
kaskia,  Vincennes — in  short,  the  whole  Illinois  territory — from 
the  English.  On  laying  his  plans  before  Virginia's  great 
governor,  Patrick  Henry,  he  was  assured  arms,  ammunition 
and  the  necessary  authority,  and  at  once  set  out  on  his 
campaign.  He  first  captured  Kaskaskia,  taking  the  Creole 
commandant  of  the  British  fort  by  surprise,  and,  making 
friends  of  the  French  colonists,  won  over  to  his  cause  the 
inhabitants  of  Cahokia  and  Vincennes.  This  was  in  the 
summer  of  1778  and  thus  far  the  very  audacity  of  Clark's 
plans  had  made  them  successful.  He  had  captured  the 
Illinois  territory  without  a  struggle.  But  in  the  fall  Col. 
Hamilton  with  a  large  force  of  English  and  Indians  set  out 
from  Detroit,  fully  intending  to  capture  Clark  and  his  handful 
of  "buckskins"  and  restore  the  British  rule  in  short  order. 
He  reached  Vincennes  early  in  the  winter  and  captured  the 
town  without  a  fight.  Here  he  entered  winter  quarters, 
postponing  his  annihilation  of  Clark  until  spring.  This  was 
his  great  error,  and  the  American's  good  luck,  for  in  February, 
1779,  Clark,  with  170  men  under  his  command,  attacked  his 
fort  and  compelled  his  surrender.  From  that  day  the  whole 
northwest  territory  has  been  in  undisputed  and  peaceful 
possession  of  the  United  States.  It  was  first  incorporated  as 
one  of  the  counties  of  Virginia  but  that  state  afterwards 
(1782)  ceded  it  to  the  general  government. 

In  1800  Ohio  was  separated  from  this  "  northwest  territory  " 
and  Michigan  and  Indiana  a  few  years  later.  There  still 
remained  the  state  of  Illinois,  Wisconsin  and  a  part  of  Minne- 
sota, with  a  combined  white  population  of  12,282  souls. 
December  3,  1818,  Illinois  was  admitted  to  the  Union  as  a 

43 


separate  state  with  Kaskaskia  as  its  first  capital.  Later 
Vandalia  became  the  seat  of  the  state  government  and  in 
1836  Springfield. 

The  earlier  immigrants  settled  for  the  most  part  in  the 
southern  portion  of  the  state  and  flourishing  settlements  of 
highly  educated  people  sprung  up  in  Vandalia,  Belleville  and 
other  tows  of  southern  and  central  Illinois.  Among  the  first 
settlers  in  Belleville  was  Gustav  Koerner,  who  afterwards 
became  governor  of  the  state.  He  is  still  (1893)  enjoying 
robust  health  and  is  actively  engaged  in  political  and  literary 
labors. 

Chicago  was,  to  a  certain  extent,  avoided  by  the  early- 
comers  and  it  was  not  until  years  after  that  the  flood  of  immi- 
gration turned  to  the  city  on  the  southern  shore  of  Lake 
Michigan. 


FIRST    CAPITOL    BUILDING    IN    ILLINOIS. 


44 


Chicago. 

Early  Documents— A  Miscarriage  in  Land  Speculation— The  Earliest  Settlers — Erection 
of  Fort  Dearborn — Tecumseh— Massacre  of  Fort  Dearborn — Tedious  Develop- 
ment of  the  Village— Black  Hawk— End  of  the  Indian  War  in  Illinois  and 
Beginning  of  the  Rapid  Development  of  the  Future  Metropolis. 

The  bold  deeds  of  Frederick  the  Great,  the  bloody  Turkish 
war,  which  so  violently  agitated  all  Europe,  the  storming  of 
the  bastille,  the  murder  of  Louis  XVI,  the  appearance  of 
Napoleon  on  the  world's  stage,  the  important  events  in  Eng- 
land, even  the  war  for  American  independence  and  its 
immediate  consequences — none  of  all  these  important  scenes 
which  were  enacted  in  the  drama  of  nations  in  the  i8th  and 
beginning  of  the  ipth  centuries,  affected  Chicago.  The 
wonder-city  of  to-day  was  then  only  a  geographical  concep- 
tion, an  unimportant  and  insignificent  meeting-place  of 
fur-traders  and  Indians.  At  the  time  of  La  Salle  and  Tonti 
there  was,  of  course,  a  comparatively  active  trade  in  Chicago 
and  as  early  as  September  14,  1699,  the  Jesuit  priest  Buisson 
de  St.  Cosne  was  warranted  in  making  to  the  bishop  of 
Quebec  a  favorable  report  on  the  Jesuit  mission  in  the  neigh- 
borhood. But  this  was  given  up  about  the  middle  of  the  last 
century  and  the  trading  post  of  "  Chicagou "  was  soon 
outdistanced  by  those  of  Melwarick  (Milwaukee)  and  St. 
Joseph. 

Unfortunately  there  is  a  lack  of  reliable  documents  and 
reports  on  many  an  interesting  event  in  the  development  of 
Illinois  and  its  chief  city  and  absolutely  no  care  is  being  taken 
by  the  proper  state  authorities  to  gather  and  preserve  such 
material  as  is  still  existing.  One  of  the  oldest  documents  re- 
lating to  Chicago  affords  a  glimpse  of  the  early  speculators. 

45 


A  venturesome  Englishman  named  William  Murray,  who  had 
turned  up  in  Kaskaskia  eight  years  before,  established  in  1773 
the  "  Illinois  Land  company  "  and  in  the  presence  of  the  civil 
and  military  officers  of  the  town  held  a  pow-wow  with  the 
chiefs  of  several  of  the  Illinois  tribes  and  received  in  trade 
from  them  two  enormous  tracts  of  land  east  of  the  Mississippi. 
In  consideration  of  this  cession  he  gave  the  Indians  five  shill- 
ings in  cash,  250  blankets,  250  strouds  (a  thick  cloth),  250 
pairs  of  stroud-and-half-thick  stockings,  150  stroud  breech- 
cloths,  500  pounds  of  gunpowder,  4000  pounds  of  lead,  one 
gross  of  knives,  thirty  pounds  of  vermillion,  2000  gun  flints, 
200  pounds  of  brass  kettles,  200  pounds  of  tobacco,  three 
dozen  gilt  looking  glasses,  10,000  pounds  of  flour,  500  bushels 
of  Indian  corn,  twelve  horses,  twelve  horned  cattle,  twenty 
bushels  of  salt  and  twenty  guns. 

In  the  deeds,  which,  however,  were  afterwards  declared 
null  and  void  by  Congress,  one  of  the  boundary  points  was  des- 
ignated as  "  Chicagou  or  Garlick  creek,"  and  the  site  of  the 
present  city  would  be  included  in%  this  grant. 

The  present  spelling  of  Chicago  is  found  for  the  first  time  in 
a  letter  of  an  Indian  trader  named  Burnett,  written  from  St. 
Joseph,  Mich.,  in  1780,  and  containing  this  laconic  sentence  : 
"  The  Pottawatomies  at  Chicago  have  killed  a  Frenchman  about 
twenty  days  ago.  They  say  there  is  plenty  of  Frenchmen. " 

The  name  "  Chicago  "  was  officially  recognized  by  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States  in  the  treaty  which  Gen.  Anth- 
ony Wayne  made  in  Greenville,  Ohio,  in  i795>  with  the  Indians 
of  the  northwest.  The  territory  which  the  Indians  at  that 
time  were  forced  to  cede  to  the  United  States,  included  "one 
piece  of  land,  six  miles  square,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Chicago 
river,  emptying  into  the  southwestern  end  of  Lake  Michigan, 
where  a  fort  formerly  stood." 

Within  this  boundary,  and  on  the  northern  side  of  the  river, 
where  Kinzie  street  commences,  only  one  man  lived  at  that 
time,  Jean  Baptiste  Point  de  Saible,  as  the  historians  call  him. 

46 


This  first  Chicago  settler,  who  drifted  here  about  the  year 
i779>  originally  came  from  the  island  of  Hayti.  By  the  peace 
of  Ryswick,  (September  20,  1697,)  the  western  part  of  this 
island  was  ceded  to  the  French  and  thereafter  made  extra- 
ordinary progress  in  its  material  development.  As  here  in  the 
west  they  had  joyfully  accepted  the  opportunity  of  intermarry- 
ing with  the  Indians,  so  among  the  negroes  of  the  West 
Indies  the  French  accepted  the  same  privilege.  Many  of  the 
half-breeds  of  Hayti,  whose  origin  may  be  attributed  to  this 
Gallic  peculiarity,  were  educated  in  the  schools  of  France  and 
afterwards  attained  positions  of  prominence  at  home,  while  the 
Spanish  Haytiens,  the  inhabitants  of  Santo  Domingo,  led  a 
precarious,  semi-barbarous  existence.  The  slaves  formerly 
brought  by  Renault  to  Fort  Chartres,  came  from  Hayti. 

Point  de  Saible  (or  perhaps  more  correctly  Point  de  Sable 
or  Sabre,,  for  there  is  no  French  word  "  Saible ")  was  a 
French  mulatto  of  the  before  mentioned  type.  Together 
with  one  Glamorgan,  an  adventurer  from  Santo  Domingo,  he 
came  by  way  of  New  Orleans,  to  the  Peoria  Indians  and  later 
wandered  up  to  Lake  Michigan,  where  he  met  the  Pottawato- 
mies.  Here  he  organized  an  extensive  and  very  remunerative 
trade,  reaching  as  far  as  Detroit  and  Mackinac.  He  was, 
therefore,  the  first  Chicago  wholesaler,  and  made  Chicago, 
for  the  first  time,  a  commercial  center.  Personally  he  is 
described  as  a  good  looking  and  very  pleasant  fellow  who,  in 
his  solitude,  had  acquired  but  one  bad  habit,  he  would  get 
drunk.  In  the  year  1796  Monsieur  de  Saible  retired  from 
business  a  wealthy  man.  In  spite  of  his  material  success, 
however,  he  does  not  seem  to  have  liked  Chicago,  for  after 
making  his  fortune  here,  he  vanished  from  the  scene  and  was 
heard  of  no  more.  His  dwelling  and  storeroom,  a  large  block- 
house built  by  his  own  hands,  passed  into  the  possession  of  a 
French  trader,  Le  Mai,  who  in  1804  sold  it  to  John  Kinzie. 
During  the  last  three  years  of  his  stay  in  Chicago,  Saible  had 
neighbors,  three  French  Canadians,  Guarie,  Ouillemette  and 

47 


Pettell,  the  first  of  whom  lived  on  the  West  Side,  the  two 
others  near  the  place  on  which  in  1803  the  fort  was  erected. 
None  of  these  gentlemen  had  held  himself  aloof  from  the 
French-Indian  race  mixing  process,  for  the  four  firesides  in 
the  four  log-houses  were  presided  over  by  four  full-blooded 
Indian  squaws. 

Immediately  after  his  treaty  with  the  Indians  of  the  north- 
west, Gen.  Wayne  recommended  to  the  government  at  Wash- 
ington, the  establishment  of  a  fort  in  Chicago,  as  a  protection 
for  American  traders,  and  he  afterwards  came  here  himself  to 
supervise  the  preliminary  steps  in  the  undertaking.  Eight 
years,  however,  elapsed  before  the  United  States  government 
acted  on  this  recommendation.  Capt.  John  Whistler  with  a 
small  command  of  United  States  troops  reached  here  July  3, 
1803,  in  the  government  schooner  "  Tracy."  He  at  once 
began,  at  the  corner  of  the  present  Michigan  avenue  and 
River  street,  to  erect  a  fort  which  was  completed  about  the 
first  of  the  following  December.  In  honor  of  Gen.  Henry 
Dearborn,  at  that  time  secretary  of  war,  the  new  fort  was 
called  Fort  Dearborn.  Except  for  the  French  settlers  and 
John  Kinzie,  who  came  here  in  1804,  there  then  lived 
between  the  Chicago  and  Des  Plaines  rivers,  only  Pottawato- 
mie  Indians,  whose  principal  settlement  was  on  the  Calumet 
river  near  the  present  site  of  South  Chicago. 

A  correct  idea  of  the  then  existing  condition  of  affairs  may 
be  gained  from  the  following  letter  of  Mrs.  Julia  Whistler, 
wife  of  the  commander  of  Fort  Dearborn :  . "  The  United 
States  Schooner  '  Tracy, '  *  *  *  *  on  arriving  at  Chicago, 
anchored  half  a  mile  from  the  shore,  discharging  her  freight 
from  boats.  Some  2000  Indians  visited  the  locality  while  the 
vessel  was  here,  being  attracted  by  so  unusual  an  occurrence 
as  the  appearence  in  these  waters  of  'a  big  canoe  with  wings.' 
There  were  then  here  but  four  rude  huts,  or  trader's  cabins, 
occupied  by  white  men,  Canadian  French  with  Indian  wives. 
*  *  *  #  There  was  not  at  that  time,  within  hundreds  of 

48 


miles,  a  team  of  horses,  or  oxen;  and  as  a  consequence,  the 
soldiers  had  to  don  the  harness,  and  with  the  aid  of  ropes, 
drag  home  the  needed  timbers. " 

Only  once  a  year  did  the  soldiers  of  the  fort  receive  their  sup- 
plies from  the  government,  and  then  generally  from  a  govern- 
ment vessel.  How  wise  was  the  recommendation  of  Gen.  Wayne, 
that  a  fort  be  erected  in  this  neighborhood,  the  occurrences 
of  the  folio  wing  year  am  ply  proved.  To  gain  an  adequate  idea  of 
the  situation,  it  is  necessary  to  view  the  Indian  treaties  effected 
by  Gen.  Harrison,  and  to  note  the  dissatisfaction  caused  by 
them.  President  John  Adams  appointed  as  governor  of  the 
northwest  territory,  created  by  an  act  of  Congress  May  7, 
1800,  Gen.  William  Henry  Harrison,  who  at  that  time  was  a 
member  of  Congress.  He  had  formerly  gained  much  exper- 
ience under  Gen.  Wayne  in  Indian  fighting,  and  proved  him- 
self a  brave  soldier.  Gov.  Harrison  confined  his  efforts 
principally  to  making  treaties  with  the  Indians  by  which  their 
lands  came  largely  into  possession  of  the  United  States.  That 
the  national  government  was  ever  cheated  in  these  transac- 
tions is  hardly  to  be  believed,  and  the  Indians  always  main- 
tained the  contrary,  claiming  to  have  been  most  unmercifully 
duped.  Be  this  as  it  may,  it  is  a  fact  that  the  United  States 
government  gained  possession  of  the  lands  of  the  Indians  of 
the  northwest  very  cheaply,  as  is  proved  by  the  following 
figures : 


DATE  OF  THE  TREATY. 

NAME  OF  THE  INDIAN  TRIBE. 

NUMBER 
OF  ACRES. 

PUR- 
CHASE 
PRICK. 

Fort  Wayne,  June  7,  1803 

i  Delawares,  Shawnees  .  .  .  ) 
•j  Miamis,  Pattawotomies.  .  > 
'  and  Kickapoos  ) 

2,038,400 

$4,000 

Vincenues,  Aug.  15,  1803 

(  Kaskaskias,  Cahokias  I 
(  and  Mitchigamies  ) 

8,911,850 

12,000 

St.  Louis,  Nov.  3,  1804.  .  . 

Sacs  and  Foxes  

14  803,500 

22.234 

Vincennes,  Dec.  30,  1805. 

Piankashaws  

2.676,150 

4,100 

Vincennes  Dec  9,  1809 

Kickapoos         

138  240 

2  700 

In  the  same  measure  as  the  government  succeeded  in  get- 
ting  possession   of  the   Indians'    lands  in  the   northwest  the 


49 


discontent  among  the  natives  increased.  In  addition  is  the 
fact,  that  the  white  settlers  as  well  as  the  government  agents, 
frequently  acted  with  unnecessary  harshness  toward  the 
Indians  and  that  the  English  in  Canada  lost  no  opportunity  to 
create  discontent  among  the  red  men  and  incite  them  to  begin 
hostilities  against  the  federal  government.  In  consequence  of 
the  conditions  thus  created  it  was  inevitable  that  the  decision 
as  to  the  final  possession  of  the  great  northwest,  east  of  the 
Mississippi  be  left  to  the  sword. 

An  important  and  in  many  respects  highly  interesting  role 
in  this  crisis  was  played  by  Tecumseh,  a  gifted  and  influential 
chief  of  the  Shawnees.  He  was  born  near  the  present  site  of 
Springfield,  Ohio,  in  1768.  While  he  was  still  a  child  his 
father  fell  on  the  battle  field,  a  fact  not  calculated  to  inspire 
him  with  any  high  degree  of  affection  for  the  whites.  His 
own  baptism  of  fire  he  received  in  Kentucky  at  the  age  of 
20  when  at  the  first  volley  he  succumbed  to  the  "  bullet  fever  " 
and  ran  away  as  fast  as  his  legs  could  carry  him.  Through 
more  than  ordinary  prudence  and  valor,  however,  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  bitter  conflicts  which  preceded  the 
treaty  of  Greenville.  About  the  year  1805  he  also  tried  to 
execute  the  plan  which  had  caused  the  downfall  of  Pontiac 
— to  form  a  union  of  all  the  Indian  tribes  of  the  west  against 
the  whites. 

He  was  greatly  assisted  in  all  his  undertakings  by  his 
brother,  Ellskwatawa,  commonly  called  the  "  Prophet,"  who 
exercised  a  remarkable  influence  upon  the  redskins.  The 
dissatisfaction  among  the  Indians  was,  of  course,  favorable  to 
the  plans  of  the  brothers.  They  asserted  that  the  chiefs  were 
unduly  influenced,  by  brandy  or  bribes,  to  make  the  various 
treaties  effected  by  Gen.  Harrison,  that  the  territ'ory  affected 
by  these  treaties  belonged  to  the  various  Indian  tribes  and 
families  and  that  therefore  individual  chiefs  had  no  right  to 
dispose  of  it  or  any  part  thereof.  In  spite  of  the  most  import- 
unate warnings  of  Gov.  Harrison  the  two  brothers,  with 

50 


indefatigable  zeal  and  persistency,  labored  hard  to  arouse  a 
warlike  spirit  among  all  the  Indian  tribes  from  the  region  of 
the  great  lakes  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

In  the  year  1806  they  came  to  the  vicinity  of  Chicago  to 
incite  the  Pottawatomies  to  deeds  of  violence  and  to  induce 
them  to  join  the  federated  Indians.  Their  failure  to  accom- 
plish their  purpose  was  due  partly  to  the  officers  of  the  fort 
but  chiefly  to  the  efforts  of  John  Kinzie,  who  was  highly 
regarded  by  the  Indians. 

In  August,  1810,  Tecumseh  was  invited  by  Gov.  Harrison 
to  a  "  quiet  talk  "  and  with  400  warriors,  all  fully  armed,  betook 
himself  to  Vincennes,  where  Gov.  Harrison's  headquarters 
then  were.  He  was  asked  to  take  a  seat  on  the  veranda  of 
the  governor's  house  but  proudly  refused,  saying :  "  Houses 
were  built  for  you  to  hold  councils  in  and  Indians  hold  theirs 
in  the  open  air."  Thereupon  Gov.  Harrison  went  out  to 
meet  the  haughty  chief  who  received  him  with  a  speech,  elo- 
quent in  the  true  Indian  fashion.  At  the  conclusion  of  his 
harangue  he  was  asked  to  take  a  seat  beside  his  "  father " 
(Gen.  Harrison)  but  gravely  refused,  saying  :  "  The  sun  is  my 
father  and  the  earth  is  my  mother.  On  her  bosom  I  will 
repose." 

In  the  discussion  which  followed,  Tecumseh  deported  him- 
self in  such  a  violent  and  threatening  manner  that  negotiations 
were  broken  off.  The  next  day  he  apologized  for  his  conduct 
and  the  conference  was  resumed,  but  without  result,  and  the 
agitation  of  the  brothers,  and  the  general  discontent  of  the  Indians 
continued.  Soon  the  Pottawatomies,  the  savages  near  Chicago, 
began  to  grow  uneasy;  the  young  warriors  heeded  not  the 
advice  of  the  older  and  wiser  chiefs,  and  began  to  listen  to  the 
schemes  of  the  brothers.  While  Tecumseh  was  engaged  in 
organizing  the  Indians  of  the  south,  the  Prophet,  November 
u,  1811,  made  an  attack  at  Tippecanoe  on  the  troops  of  Gen. 
Harrison,  but  was  repulsed  with  heavy  losses  on  both  sides. 

After  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  of  1812,  Tecumseh  allied 


himself  with  the  English  in  order  to  wreak  his  vengeance  on 
Gen.  Harrison,  whom  he  hated  bitterly.  From  the  English 
he  received  command  of  the  Indian  forces,  and  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  the  principal  conflicts  of  1812  and  1813.  In 
recognition  of  his  bravery  and  ability,  he  was  made  a  brigadier- 
general  on  the  battlefield  of  Maguaga  where  he  had  been 
dangerously  wounded.  The  cut  here  given  represents  him 
in  his  uniform  as  an  English  general. 


His  aversion  to  Gen.  Harrison  and  his  staff  was  so  great 
that  he  refused  to  participate  in  any  conference  where  one  of 
them  was  present.  This  fact,  however,  did  not  deter  him,  after 
the  successful  siege  of  Fort  Meigs,  where  he  commanded  2000 
Indian  warriors,  from  preventing  the  proposed  slaughter  of  the 
American  prisoners.  During  the  retreat  of  the  British,  after 
the  battle  of  Lake  Erie,  Tecumseh  who  always  fought  des- 
perately, in  the  very  front  ranks,  was  again  severely  wounded. 

Pathetic  to  a  high  degree  is  the  end  of  this  remarkable 
chieftain.  Even  before  the  decisive  battle  on  the  Thames  in 


Canada,  October  5,  1813,  where  he  commanded  the  right 
wing  of  the  English,  he  believed  defeat  inevitable  and  rather 
than  survive  the  triumph  of  his  enemies  decided  to  seek  death 
on  the  field  of  battle.  He  laid  aside  his  sword  and  uniform 
and  once  more  put  on  the  regulation  war  dress  of  an  Indian 
chief.  With  a  wild  war-whoop  he  dashed  into  the  midst  of 
the  conflict  and  soon  found  the  desired  end.  Tccumseh  was 
indisputably  one  of  the  most  prominent  and  intelligent  of  the 
Indian  leaders,  and  would  undoubtedly  have  become  a  states- 
man and  soldier  of  renown  had  his  earlier  education  been  of 
a  different  character. 

Closely  connected  with  the  agitations  of  Tecumseh,  and  the 
Prophet  and  the  intrigues  .of  the  agents  of  the  English,  was  an 
event  which  cast  its  awful  shadows  over  the  very  beginning  of 
Chicago,  the  massacre  of  the  garrison  of  Fort  Dearborn. 

This  took  place  in  August  1812.  Saturday,  August  9,  a 
friendly  Pottawatomie  chief, Winnimeg,  hurried  unexpectedly 
into  the  fort.  He  brought  a  letter  from  Gen.  Hull,  commander 
of  Fort  Detroit,  to  Capt.  Heald,  who,  after  the  transfer  of  Col. 
Whistler,  had  command  of  Fort  Dearborn.  For  weeks  the 
situation  of  the  garrison  had  been  very  critical.  The  Indians 
who  hung  around  the  fort  day  by  day  became  more  threaten- 
ing and  now  bad  news  from  the  east!  The  letter  announced 
that  the  United  States  had  declared  war  against  England  June 
12,  1812.  Three  weeks  before  Mackinac  had  fallen  into  the 
hands  of  the  enemy.  Fort  Dearborn  was  to  be  abandoned 
and  the  garrison,  if  possible,  was  to  go  to  Detroit  by  land. 
The  supplies  and  ammunition  in  the  fort  were  to  be  disposed 
of  according  to  the  discretion  of  the  commander. 

It  was  believed  that  the  contents  of  the  letter  could  be  kept 
secret  from  the  Indians,  but  Tecumseh  had  taken  good  care  to 
fully  advise  his  red  brothers  of  the  turn  affairs  had  taken  and 
they  were  in  no  mood  to  forego  any  of  the  advantages  offered 
by  the  situation.  Allured  by  the  prospect  of  plunder,  new 
bands  of  Indians  arrived  almost  hourly.  Besides  a  great 

53 


quantity  of  various  kinds  of  merchandise  there  were  stored  in 
the  fort  immense  supplies  of  powder  and  whisky,  and  powder 
and  whisky  were  just  what  the  Indians  desired.  They 
decided  therefore,  to  butcher  the  garrison  and  only  awaited  a 
favorable  opportunity.  Capt.  Heald  had  only  forty-five  men 
and  two  officers  under  his  command  and  there  were  but  twelve 
militia  men  in  addition.  Part  of  his  men  were  sick  so  that 
only  forty  of  the  garrison  were  able  to  bear  arms.  Their 
chief  duty  was  to  protect  twelve  women  and  twenty  children. 
The  Indians  surrounding  the  fort  were  700  strong. 

After  the  arrival  of  Winnimeg  a  council  of  war  was  held  in 
the  fort,  but  on  account  of  the  decided  difference  of  opinion 
no  definite  action  resulted.  Winnimeg  advised  leaving  the  fort 
at  once,  abandoning  to  the  Indians,  arms,  ammunition,  whisky 
— everything.  Capt.  Heald,  however,  wished  to  give  the 
Indians  in  return  for  a  promise  of  safe  conduct,  everything  but 
what  they  wanted — i.  e.,  arms,  whisky  and  ammunition. 
Lieut.  Helm,  Ensign  Ronan  and  a  majority  of  the  men  were 
in  favor  of  remaining  as  long  as  possible  in  the  fort  in  hopes  of 
reinforcements.  None  of  the  unfortunates  had  much  hope  of 
escape.  The  arrival,  on  August  13,  of  Capt.  William  Wells, 
Indian  agent  in  Fort  Wayne,  with  thirty  friendly  Miamis,  cast 
the  last  faint  ray  of  sunshine  into  the  gloomy  camp.  Wells, 
the  uncle  of  Mrs.  Heald,  had  received  news  of  the  precarious  con- 
dition of  the  garrison,  and  had  voluntarily  come  to  afford  it  relief 
if  possible.  He  well  knew  how  to  deal  with  Indians,  in  peace 
or  man  to  man  on  the  battlefield.  When  a  boy  of  12,  during 
an  Indian  war  in  Kentucky,  in  which  his  father  played  a 
conspicuous  part,  he  was  stolen  by  a  Miami  and  adopted  by 
their  great  chief,  Little  Turtle.  Then  he  became  the  chief's 
son-in-law,  having  married  one  of  the  Misses  Little  Turtle. 
But  he  soon  tired  of  this  interesting  family,  and  of  Indian  life, 
and  one  fine  morning  told  his  wife's  relatives  that  he  would  take 
his  family  and  return  to  the  whites.  Later,  under  Gen.  Wayne, 
he  distinguished  himself  in  many  a  hot  combat  against  the 

54 


red  men.  Since  the  peace  of  Greenville,  however,  he  lived 
in  perfect  harmony  with  the  tribe  to  which  his  wife  had 
belonged. 

Wells  urged  an  immediate  abandonment  of  the  fort,  and 
agreed  with  John  Kinzie  and  Capt.  Heald  as  to  the  advisa- 
bility of  destroying  the  arms,  whisky  and  ammunition.  This 
was  done.  When  the  Indians  saw  keg  after  keg  of  their 
beloved  fire  water  rolled  into  the  lake,  their  wrath  knew  no 
bounds. 

On  the  morning  of  August  15,  about  9  o'clock,  the  gates 
of  the  fort  were  opened  and  the  garrison  marched  out.  Fifteen 
of  Capt.  Wells'  Miamis  march  at  the  head.  Then  came  the 
band — playing  a  funeral  march  !  In  the  middle,  in  wagons  or 
on  horseback  came  the  women,  children  and  the  sick,  guarded 
by  the  few  able-bodied  soldiers ;  the  other  fifteen  Miamis  formed 
the  rear  guard.  John  Kinzie,  although  warned  by  a  friendly 
Indian,  also  went  along,  hoping  that  if  worst  came  to  worst, 
his  influence  with  the  natives  might  prevent  bloodshed.  His 
family  had  already  been  taken  in  canoes  by  friendly  Indians 
to  a  hiding  place  in  the  vicinity  of  St.  Joseph.  The  last  man 
had  hardly  left  the  fort  when  the  Indian  hordes  like  a  pack  of 
hungry  wolves,  rushed  ^howling  into  the  building,  but  of  that 
which  they  most  eagerly  sought,  whisky  and  powder,  they 
found  no  trace. 

According  to  an  agreement  with  Capt.  Heald  500  Potta- 
watomies  escorted  the  garrison  from  the  fort.  They 
marched  along  the  lake  shore  on  an  Indian  trail.  About  100 
yards  west  of  this  trail,  and  perhaps  a  quarter  of  a  mile  south 
of  the  fort,  there  was  a  row  of  sand-hills  which  completely  cut 
off  the  view  to  the  prairie.  As  soon  as  the  Indians  arrived  at 
the  first  of  these  hills  they  made  a  detour  to  the  right,  march- 
Ing  along  to  the  west  of  them  and  cut  completely  off  from  the 
the  sight  of  the  people  from  the  fort  who  continued  along  the 
shore  between  the  lake  and  the  hills.  Availing  themselves  of 
their  protection  the  Indians  hastened  on  and  about  a  mile  and 

55 


a  half  from  the  fort  made  an  ambuscade  and  awaited  the 
approach  of  the  unsuspecting  garrison.  They  did  not  have 
long  to  wait.  Soon  Capt.  Wells,  riding  well  in  advance  of  the 
troop,  appeared,  but  caught  sight  of  the  Indians  almost  as  soon 
as  they  did  of  him.  Realizing  in  a  moment  what  had  happened, 
he  wheeled  his  horse  and  dashed  back  to  report  to  Capt. 
Heald.  Their  worst  fears  had  come  to  pass.  The  hundreds 
of  Indians  had  lured  them  from  the  fort  and  now  meant  to 
butcher  them.  There  was  but  one  thing  to  do — sell  their 
lives  as  dearly  as  possible  and  protect  the  helpless  women  and 
children  to  their  last  breath.  The  soldiers  did  not  stop  to 
draw  up  the  wagons  and  make  of  them  a  rude  shelter  from 
the  bullets  of  their  foes  but  dashed  on  up  the  hill,  hoping  by  a 
brilliant  charge  to  dislodge  their  enemy.  In  this  they  were 
partially  successful,  but  new  hordes  of  the  red  devils  suddenly 
appeared  in  the  rear  and  in  an  instant  captured  the  almost 
helpless  wagon  train.  The  soldiers  came  back,  but  too  late ! 
The  wagons  were  already  captured  and  the  red  men  out- 
numbered the  soldiers  twenty  to  one.  Around  the  wagons 
the  struggle  was  fiercest.  Hand  to  hand  the  white  and  red 
men  fought  and  fell.  Among  the  first  who  was  cut  down  was 
Capt.  Wells.  Mortally  hurt  with  the  blood  pouring  from  a 
wound  in  his  head  the  brave  fellow  rode  up  to  Mrs.  Heald  to 
bid  her  farewell  and  send  a  'last  message  to  his  wife  and 
children.  Then  he  rode  back  to  fight  while  his  strength 
lasted.  In  a  moment  he  fell  dead  from  his  horse,  but  the  red 
fiends  instantly  picked  up  the  body  and  carried  it  away.  The 
head  was  hacked  from  the  trunk  and  the  brave  heart  torn 
from  the  breast,  cut  into  little  pieces  and  given  by  bloody 
fingers  to  the  various  chieftains,  who  ate  the  still  warm  flesh, 
hoping  thus  to  gain  for  themselves  some  portion  of  the  heroic 
spirit  that  had  dwelt  therein.  Wells  was  not  the  only  man  to 
fall,  however.  The  whole  encounter  lasted  but  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes  and  when  it  was  over  there  remained  of  the  132  white 
persons,  who  had  but  a  few  moments  before  left  the  fort  under 

56 


promise  of  safe  guidance  from  the  Indians,  but  twenty-five 
men,  two  women  and  eleven  children — all  more  or  less  severely 
wounded. 

The  most  horrible  incidents  in  this  massacre  were  the 
slaughter  of  a  whole  wagon  load  of  little  children  by  a  youftg 
buck,  and  later  the  murder  by  the  squaws  of  the  sick  and 
wounded  soldiers.  Capt.  Heald  had  surrendered  only  on  the 
express  condition  that  the  lives  of  the  prisoners  be  spared — 
but  in  spite  of  this  many  of  the  helpless  whites  were  killed  in 
cold  blood,  and  all  were  cruelly  treated.  The  scene  of  this 
horror  was  near  i8th  street  where  it  crosses  Prairie  and 
Indiana  avenues. 

Besides  Capt.  Wells,  Ensign  Ronan  and  Surgeon  Van 
Voorhis  were  among  those  slain.  Capt.  Heald,  Lieut.  Helm 
and  their  wives  were  among  those  severely  wounded.  The 
escape  of  Mrs.  Helm,  a  daughter  of  Kinzie,  was  remarkable. 
A  young  warrior  had  seized  and  was  trying  to  tomahawk  her, 
when  an  older  Indian,  evidently  a  chief,  ran  up  and  dragged 
her  away  from  her  captor.  He  then  carried  her  to  the  lake 
and  plunged  her  into  the  water  and  the  unhappy  woman 
expected  to  be  drowned.  Soon,  however,  she  noticed  that  the 
old  chief  was  carefully  holding  her  head  above  water,  and 
looking  closely  she  saw  that  her  captor  was  Black  Partridge, 
her  husband's  friend,  who  had  used  this  strategy  to  save 
her  life.  She  was  afterwards  taken  to  her  parents  in  Detroit. 
Her  husband  also  escaped  with  his  life,  but  was  held  captive 
by  the  Indians  until  the  payment  of  a  heavy  ransom.  Mrs. 
Heald  was  wounded  six  times.  She,  with  her  husband,  was 
taken  to  St.  Joseph,  and  there  kept  until  both  had  recovered. 
Capt.  Heald  was  afterwards  paroled  by  the  English.  In  the 
evening  after  the  massacre,  the  Indians  celebrated  their  bloody 
work  by  firing  Fort  Dearborn. 

The  ruins  of  the  fort  were  still  smoking  when  the  red 
devils  left  the  scene  of  their  carnage,  taking  their  booty  with 
them — leaving  their  victims  unburied  behind.  Quiet  reigned 

57 


once  more  in  the  youthful  settlement — a  quiet  as  profound  as 
when  the  first  French  explorer  put  foot  upon  the  virgin  soil. 
The  log  huts  were  desolate  and  deserted,  the  tilled  fields  were 
laid  waste  and  the  store  houses  empty  and  plundered.  The 
only  man  who  escaped  the  great  disaster  without  injury  was 
the  French  half-breed,  Antoine  Ouillemette,  who  still  dwelt,  as 
before,  with  his  family  on  the  West  Side,  tried  to  get  his  fur 
trade  in  shape  again  and  finally  founded,  a  few  miles  north  of 
Chicago,  the  little  villiage  of  Wilmette. 

The  plan  of  connecting  Lake  Michigan  with  the  Illinois 
and  Mississippi  rivers,  proposed  by  Joliet  as  early  as  1673, 
came  one  step  nearer  realization  in  1814  when  President 
Madison,  in  a  message  to  Congress,  pointed  out  the  great 
advantages  to  be  derived  from  such  a  connection.  The  first 
direct  effect  of  the  message  was  the  re-erection  of  Fort  Dear- 
born. Capt.  Hezekiah  Bradley,  appointed  by  the  govern- 
ment for  this  purpose,  arrived  in  Chicago  July  4,  1816,  with 
two  companies  of  soldiers.  The  first  act  of  the  new  comers 
was  to  gather  the  bleached  bones  of  their  predecessors  and 
bury  them  in  the  garrison  cemetery,  which  was  then  located 
on  the  spot  now  occupied  by  the  Lake  Front  Park.  The 
new  fort  was  erected  on  the  site  of  the  old  one  but  was  built 
on  a  better  plan  and  was  considerably  larger.  In  consequence 
of  peace  being  declared  between  England  and  the  United 
States,  February  17,  1815,  and  the  rebuilding  of  Fort  Dear- 
born, trade  and  commerce  began  to  flourish  once  more  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Chicago.  The  first  to  return  to  their  deserted 
home  was  the  Kinzie  family  (1816).  The  firm  of  Detroit 
fur-traders,  Conant  and  March,  founded  a  branch  establish- 
ment in  Chicago  in  1817,  and  a  certain  John  Crafts  was  their 
foreman.  John  Jacob  Astor,  a  German  of  New  York,  who 
had  succeeded  in  establishing  a  fur-trading  business  that  soon 
rivaled  that  of  the  Hudson  Bay  company,  sent  his  agent,  Gur- 
don  S.  Hubbard,  to  Chicago  in  1818.  John  Kinzie,  who  was  by 
trade  a  silver-smith,  and  at  first  dealt  in  furs  only  incidentally, 

58 


was  among  those  who  did  business  with  Hubbard.  The 
Astor  branch  became  so  successful  that  Conant  and  March 
could  not  compete  with  it  and  were  compelled  to  sell  out  to 
Astor.  In  1819  the  first  Milwaukee  man  came  here  and  he 
never  had  cause  to  regret  the  change — this  was  Jean  Baptiste 
Beaubien,  an  old  fur-trader,  who  afterwards  played  an  import- 
ant role  in  the  development  of  the  city.  He  was  an  enterpris- 
ing man  and  very  rich,  for  those  days. 

Furs,  at  this  time,  comprised  the  staple  article  of  Chicago's 
trade.  At  regular  intervals  the  Indians  brought  into  town  the 
results  of  their  hunting  expeditions.  The  fur-traders  then  sent 
the  skins  in  small  vessels  to  the  Atlantic  coast,  from  where  they 
were  shipped  to  Europe.  That  this  trade  was  carried  on  with 
any  remarkable  degree  of  honesty  cannot  be  asserted.  Those 
Indians  who  had  been  in  constant  intercourse  with  the  whites, 
had  become  more  and  more  demoralized  since  their  first  con- 
tact with  the  French,  and  by  the  beginning  of  the  present  cen- 
tury, were  helpless  slaves  to  alcohol.  Characteristic  is  the  fol- 
lowing remark  of  Topenebe,  a  prominent  Pottawatomie  chief  of 
not  less  than  80  years,  who,  during  a  public  address  before  the 
great  Indian  meeting  in  Chicago  in  1821  with  impressive  sol- 
emnity said :  "  We  care  not  for  the  land  the  money  or  the 
goods ;  it  is  the  whisky  we  want,  give  us  the  whisky. " 

After  the  conclusion  of  the  treaty  made  at  this  gathering, 
the  appetites  of  the  noble  advocates  of  fire-water  were  partially, 
at  least,  appeased  by  the  government  land  commissioner  who 
gave  them  seven  kegs  of  whisky.  During  the  next  twenty- 
four  hours  not  less  then  ten  cowardly  murders  were  committed 
in  the  Indian  camp.  Among  the  Americans  in  those  days 
there  were  of  course  some  humanitarians  who  tried,  both  by 
kind  teaching  and  stern  laws,  to  save  the  Indian  from  the  ter- 
rible consequences  of  whisky;  but  the  traders,  who  reaped 
their  profit  from  the  misery  of  the  redskins,  did  not  favor  thes& 
kindly  measures,  nor  in  their  time  did  the  French  officers  and 
post  commanders.  In  this  regard  the  following  letter,  written 

59 


in  1695  by  Cadillac,  the  commander  of  Fort  Michilimackinac, 
to  a  friend  in  Quebec,  may  be  quoted  as  showing  the  attitude 
of  the  French.  With  true  Gallic  cynicism  he  writes :  "  What 
reason  can  one  assign  that  the  savages  should  not  drink  brandy 
bought  with  their  own  money  ?  This  prohibition  has  much 
discouraged  the  Frenchmen  here  from  trading  in  the  future. 
It  seems  very  strange  that  they  should  pretend  that  the 
savages  would  ruin  themselves  by  drinking.  The  savage  him- 
self asks  why  they  do  not  leave  him  in  his  beggary,  his  liberty, 
and  his  idleness;  he  was  born  in  it  and  wishes  to  die  in  it — it 
is  a  life  to  which  he  has  been  accustomed  since  Adam.  Do 
they  wish  him  to  build  palaces  and  ornament  them  with  beauti- 
ful furniture?  He  would  not  exchange  his  wigwam  and  the 
mat,  on  which  he  squats  like  a  monkey,  for  the  Louvre  ! " 

Whisky  was  the  principal  article  which  the  traders  gave  the 
Indian  in  exchange  for  his  furs — a  fact  due  not  only  to  the 
redmen's  natural  love  of  "  fire-water,  "  but  quite  as  much  to 
his  utter  inability  to  drive  a  shrewd  bargain  when  in  a  mild 
state  of  inebriety.  Often  dishonest  traders  would  get  an 
Indian  befuddled  with  liquor  and  then  mercilessly  fleece  him. 
Naturally  enough  the  after  effects  of  a  redman's  debauch  were 
peculiarly  exasperating,  for  almost  invariably,  as  his  brain 
cleared,  came  the  cheerful  consciousness  that  he  had  been 
stripped  of  all  his  worldly  possessions.  As  a  result  the  com- 
mercial relations  between  the  Indians  and  the  whites  were 
often  unpleasant,  and  not  infrequently  called  for  government 
interference.  Soon  after  Fort  Dearborn  was  rebuilt,  the  sec- 
retary of  war  established,  both  there  and  at  a  fort  in  Green 
Bay,  factories,  so-called,  or  agencies  through  which  the  Indians 
and  traders  were  to  make  exchanges  on  an  honest  basis.  But 
the  experiment  was  not  a  success.  The  factories  fell  into  the 
hands  of  unscrupulous  and  dishonest  men,  and  the  Indian  soon 
learned  that  he  had  merely  fallen  from  the  frying  pan  into 
the  fire.  Both  he  and  the  government  were  cheated  while 
the  whisky  anarchy  grew  stronger  than  ever.  So  strong,  in 

60 


fact,  that  the  government  found  itself  obliged  to  give  up  its 
paternal  and  quasi-socialistic  factory  system,  which,  in  1822, 
passed  into  the  hands  of  Astor.  The  Knickerbocker  pelt-dealer 
thus  got  control  of  the  fur  trade  of  the  northwest,  and  so  made 
an  enormous  fortune. 

Fortunately  Chicago  commerce  soon  outgrew  these  primitive 
business  methods,  and  became  much  more  diversified  and 
healthful. 

As  early  as  August  24,  1816,  a  national  commission  con- 
sisting of  Gov.  Edwards,  of  Illinois,  William  Clark  and  A. 
Chouteau,  met  in  St.  Louis,  the  representatives  of  the  Potta- 
watomies,  Chippewas  and  Ottawas,  and  tried  to  secure  the 
surrender  by  the  Indians  of  enough  land  for  the  already  pro- 
jected Illinois  and  Michigan  canal.  According  to  the  official 
documents,  this  canal  was  "to  connect  Buffalo  with  New 
Orleans, "  and  it  was  in  its  interest  that  the  great  Indian  meet- 
ing of  1821  was  held  in  Chicago.  This  was  a  most  important 
event  in  the  development  of  the  city.  By  virtue  of  the  treaty 
then  concluded  with  the  Indians  by  Gen.  Lewis  Cass,  and 
Solomon  Sibley,  with  the  assistance  of  John  Kinzie  and 
Beaubien,  certain  lands  necessary  for  the  construction  of  the 
canal  were  obtained,  and  the  troublesome  redmen  crowded 
away  from  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Michigan. 

The  preparations  which  had  to  be  made  for  this  meeting  by 
the  national  commission  and  by  the  few  residents  of  Chicago, 
were  in  keeping  with  the  importance  of  the  occasion.  Fifteen 
thousand  Indians  had  to  be  so  fed  and  cared  for  that  they 
should  be  satisfied  and  yet  not  so  well  entertained  that  they 
become  unmanageable.  The  task  of  the  national  commission 
was  by  no  means  easy :  to  come  to  a  satisfactory  understand- 
ing with  the  sixty-four  chiefs  who  represented  the  various 
tribes  interested.  The  Indians  were  loath  to  give  up  the  rich 
and  fertile  hunting  grounds  they  had  learned  to  love  and  they 
noted  with  grave  apprehensions  how,  more  and  more  they 
were  being  crowded  out  of  the  fruitful  region  of  the  great 

61 


rivers  and  lakes  of  the  northwest  and  into  the  inhospitable 
and  remote  sections  of  the  country.  The  negotiations  lasted 
several  weeks  and  were  not  always  conducted  in  the  smooth- 
est manner  possible.  Many  an  eloquent  and  poetic  word  was 
spoken  by  the  red  man,  many  a  one  which  sounded  like  a 
lamentation  for  the  inevitable  destruction  of  a  once  powerful 
people,  but  there  was  also  many  a  word  which  showed  the 
utter  demoralization  into  which  some  of  the  tribes  had  already 
fallen.  It  was  on  August  29  that  the  treaty  was  finally 
arranged  to  suit  all  parties  and  was  subscribed  to  by  the 
chiefs.  The  formality  of  their  signing  the  document  was 
complied  with  by  having  each  chief  mark  a  cross  after  his 
name  which  had  already  been  written  down  in  English  char- 
acters. Sixteen  white  witnesses  then  signed  their  names  and 
the  transfer  to  the  United  States  of  five  million  acres  of  land 
was  concluded.  In  return  the  Ottawas  and  Chippewas  were 
to  forever  receive  an  annual  payment  of  $1000  from  the  gov- 
ernment and  the  Pottawatomies  one  of  $5000,  and  in  addition 
$2500  a  year  was  to  be  expended  by  the  government  in  pro- 
viding the  Indians  with  instruction  in  blacksmithing. 
agriculture,  etc. 

By  this  treaty  the  great  canal  project  was  assured  and  from 
it  dates  the  first  powerful  impetus  to  Chicago's  development. 

By  the  ordinance  of  March  30,  1822  Congress  gave  the 
state  the  right  to  construct  a  canal  through  the  government 
lands  according  to  certain  fixed  plans.  In  addition,  the  state 
of  Illinois  was  granted  a  strip  of  land  ninety  feet  wide  on  each 
side  of  the  canal  and  Congress  appropriated  $10,000  to  defray 
the  cost  of  the  preliminary  survey.  Thus  were  made,  on 
paper  at  least,  the  beginnings  of  the  canal,  but  not  until  much 
later,  July  4, 1836,  was  the  first  shovelful  of  earth  turned  in  the 
great  undertaking.  In  the  meantime  enormous  financial  diffi- 
culties had  been  met  and  overcome. 

During  this  period  the  political  history  of  Chicago  was  less 
important  than  vicissitudinous.  Shortly  after  the  organization 

62 


of  the  territory  of  Illinois,  the  region  in  which  Chicago  lies 
was  a  part  of  St.  Clair  county,  soon  thereafter  it  was  assigned 
to  the  new  county  of  Madison;  in  1819  it  was  transferred  to 
Clark  county,  which  extended  to  the  Canadian  boundary; then 
in  1821  it  belonged  to  Pike,  in  1823  to  Fulton  and  in  1825  to 
Peoria  county.  The  settlement,  Chicago,  was  then  scarcely 
deserving  of  a  name. 

The  number  of  the  settlers  varied.  The  increase  was  slow 
and  irregular.  Only  after  the  survey  of  the  region  by 
the  canal  commission,  August,  1830,  did  the  village  of  Chicago 
receive  a  fixed  organization.  It  was  bounded  by  Kinzie,  State, 
Madison  and  Des  Plaines  streets,  and  contained  about  one-half  a 
square  mile.  In  1831,  Cook  county  was  organized,  and  Chicago 
became  the  county  seat.  The  county  was  named  in  honor  of 
Daniel  C.  Cook,  who  played  an  important  role  in  the  history 
of  Illinois  as  a  politician,  newspaper-man,  first  member  of 
Congress  from  this  district  and  as  judge. 

In  1823  the  authorities  of  Fulton  county  levied  a  tax  of  one- 
half  per  cent  on  all  personal  property  with  the  exception  of 
household  effects.  The  result  of  the  levy  was  $11.42,  and  the 
value  of  the  assessed  property,  $22.84.  At  this  time  the  town 
collectors  were  still  honest. 

A  tax  levied  in  Peoria  county  in  1825,  gave  a  better  result 
$90.49.  The  fur  company  paid  the  highest  tax,  $50.00,  then 
followed  Beaubien  with  $10.00,  Jonas  Clybourne  with  $6.25, 
Alexander  Wolcott  with  $5.72,  John  Kinzie  with  $5.00, 
Antoine  Ouillemette  with  $4.00  and  Beaubien's  rich  father-in 
law,  La  Framboise,  with  $1.00. 

The  first  election  took  place  December  2,  1823.  John  Kin- 
zie was  elected  justice  of  the  peace,  and  two  years  later 
Archibald  Clybourne,  Chicago's  first  butcher,  who  had  come 
from  Virginia  in  the  meantime,  was  elected  constable.  At  an 
election  held  August  7,  1826,  in  the  house  of  the  Indian  agent, 
Wolcott,  a  son-in-law  of  John  Kinzie,  there  were  thirty-five 
voters,  almost  three-fourths  of  whom  were  French  Canadians 

63 


or  half-breeds.  The  judges  of  election  were  John  Kinzie, 
John  Baptiste  Beaubien  and  a  half-breed  named  Archibald 
Caldwell  or  Sauganash.  This  Caldwell  is  one  of  the  most  inter- 
esting figures  among  the  pioneers — a  man  who  served  to  such 
good  advantage,  both  Indians  and  whites,  that  he  deserves  to 
be  held  in  grateful  remembrance  by  future  generations. 

Archibald  Caldwell,  or  "Billy"  Caldwell,  as  he  was  more 
commonly  called,  was  born  in  1 780,  and  was  the  natural  son 
of  a  certain  Col.  Caldwell,  an  Irishman,  stationed  in  the  British 
fort  at  Detroit,  and  a  Pottawatomie  maiden,  who  is  reported  to 
have  been  of  remarkable  beauty  and  extraordinary  intelligence. 
As  the  son,  in  addition  to  possessing  a  singularly  sweet  and 
straightforward  nature  and  a  helpful  and  kindly  disposition, 
had  inherited  all  his  mother's  wit  and  not  a  little  of  her  famous 
beauty,  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  no  picture  of  either  has  been 
preserved. 

When  a  boy  he  attended  the  Jesuit  school  in  Detroit,  learned 
to  read  and  write  English  and  French,  and  mastered  the  prin- 
cipal Indian  dialects  of  the  northwest.  But  little  else  is  known 
of  him  during  his  youth,  except  that  on  account  of  his  fine, 
slim  figure  the  Indians  called  him  "  Tall  Tree,"  Later  both 
the  whites  and  redskins  of  the  northwest  called  him  merely 
"Sauganash"  (the  Englishman). 

In  early  manhood  he  became  a  close  and  devoted  follower 
of  Tecumseh,  and  from  1807  to  the  latter's  death  on  the  battle- 
field of  the  Thames,  October  5,  1813,  he  was  the  great  chief's 
most  trusted  friend,  his  messenger  and  secretary.  In  all  the 
bloody  scenes  through  which  he  passed  at  Tecumseh's  side,  he 
distinguished  himself  by  his  strength,  skill  and  valor.  He 
first  came  to  the  region  around  Chicago  as  a  messenger  from 
Tecumseh  to  the  Pottawatomies,  shortly  before  the  massacre 
of  Fort  Dearborn.  As  he  was,  like  his  chief,  a  humane  man, 
and  not  inclined  to  the  cruelties  practiced  by  the  Indians,  he 
did  his  best  to  prevent  the  massacre  of  the  whites  and  failing 
in  this,  he  accomplished,  at  least,  the  salvation  of  the  Kinzie 

64 


family.  Later,  as  he  became  better  acquainted  with  the 
Americans,  his  love  for  the  English  grew  cold,  and  about  the 
year  1820  he  cut  loose  from  his  former  allies  and  settled  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Fort  Dearborn.  In  1826  he  was  appointed 
justice  of  the  peace  in  Peoria  county  and  during  the  early  elec- 
tions regularly  officiated  as  judge  or  clerk.  He  was  a  true 
friend  of  the  whites  and  exercised  in  their  favor  a  strong 
influence  upon  the  Indians.  The  threatened  revolt  of  the 
Winnebagoes  and  Pottawatomies  in  1827,  which  would 
undoubtedly  have  been  but  a  repetition  of  the  horror  of  1812, 
was  prevented  only  through  Sauganash  and  his  friend,  Shaw- 
bonee,  chief  of  the  Pottawatomies.  The  fact  that  the  Indians 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Chicago  did  not  go  on  the  war-path 
with  Black  Hawk  is  due  solely  to  the  healthful  influence  of 
Sauganash.  He  always  endeavored  to  make  the  blessings  of 
Caucasian  civilization  accessible  to  the  Indians,  and  when  in 
1832  a  certain  Watkins  established  a  private  school  in  Chi- 
cago he  offered  to  pay  for  the  clothing,  books  and  tuition  of 
all  Indian  children  who  would  attend  it.  No  one,  however, 
accepted  this  generous  offer,  for  the  Indians  did  not  wish  their 
children  to  be  dressed  after  the  fashion  of  the  whites. 

Sauganash  also  strove  to  check  polygamy  'among  the 
Indians,  thereby,  however,  giving  rise  to  sarcastic  criticism— 
his  red  brothers  alleging  as  the  reason  of  his  objection  to 
polygamy,  that  he  had  been  unfortunate  in  the  choice  of  a 
wife  and  found  one  more  than  sufficient.  His  spouse  was  the 
daughter  of  a  well  known  Indian  chief  and  soon  after  her 
marriage  won  for  herself  a  reputation  as  an  Indian  Xantippe. 
Strong  and  courageous  as  Sauganash  otherwise  was,  before 
her  he  struck  his  colors,  and  his  white  neighbors  were  fond  of 
relating  how  shrill  and  angry  words  from  his  wigwam  used  to 
break  the  stillness  of  the  night — and  the  voice  was  not  that  of 
Sauganash.  The  only  child  of  this  marriage  died  in  infancy. 

In  adjusting  difficulties  among  the  Indians,  or  between  them 
and  the  whites,  as  well  as  in  negotiating  treaties,  Sauganash 

5 

65 


rendered  his  contemporaries  many  an  important  service.  It 
was  in  recognition  of  this  fact  that  the  government  granted 
him  a  pension.  Proof  of  his  nobility  of  character  is  an  incident 
which  forms,  as  it  were,  the  finale  of  his  public  career.  In  the 
year  1836  the  government  caused  the  Indians  in  the  vicinity  of 
Chicago  to  assemble  in  the  town  for  the  last  time  before  being 
transferred  to  their  new  reservation  on  the  Missouri  near 
Council  Bluffs.  The  Indians  did  not  take  at  all  kindly  to  this 
change  and  the  plans  of  the  government  would  undoubtedly 
have  failed  of  peaceful  execution  but  for  the  aid  of  Sauganash. 
He  volunteered  to  give  up  the  home  near  Fort  Dearborn, 
which  had  grown  very  dear  to  him,  and  to  leave  his  many 
friends  in  order  to  share  the  fate  of  his  people.  He  then  per- 
sonally superintended  the  removal  of  the  Indians,  which  was 
successfully  accomplished. 

Another  kindly  deed  of  Sauganash  was  to  deny  certain 
campaign  stories  circulated  in  1840,  about  his  former  foe,  Gen. 
Harrison,  then  a  presidential  candidate.  The  general  was 
charged  with  cowardice,  and  Sauganash  and  his  friend  Shaw- 
bonee,  both  of  whom  had  opposed  Harrison  under  Tecumseh, 
wrote  a  pathetic  letter,  in  which  they  speak  not  only  of  the 
bravery,  but  also  of  the  humanity  and  kindness  of  the  old 
Indian  fighter. 

Sauganash  did  not  long  survive  his  transfer  to  the  "  Wild 
West "  of  that  day,  dying  when  62  years  old,  in  Council  Bluffs, 
September  28,  1841. 

One  of  the  first  hotels  built  in  Chicago,  and  the  first  build- 
ing not  a  log-house,  was  named  after  Sauganash.  While  it 
was  in  course  of  construction,  the  friends  of  the  proprietor, 
Mark  Beaubien,  suggested  that  it  be  named  in  honor  of  some 
great  man.  Thereupon  Beaubien  delighted  his  friends  and 
neighbors  by  declaring  that  the  new  hotel  should  be  called  the 
"  Sauganash." 

Young  Chicago  was  very  proud  of  this  frame  palace,  which 
was  situated  on  the  corner  of  Lake  and  Market  streets.  For 

66 


nearly  three  decades,  under  various  proprietors,  it  enjoyed  an 
excellent  reputation,  but  on  the  night  of  March  4,  1851,  together 
with  various  other  buildings,  it  was  burned  down — prob- 
ably by  an  incendiary. 

A  great  many  historical  facts  are  coupled  with  the  Saug- 
anash  hotel.  For  years  it  was  the  center  of  social  and  political 
Chicago;  here  J.  B.  Beaubien  founded  his  debating  society  in 
which  the  inhabitants  of  the  young  city  were  wont  to  spend 
many  of  their  leisure  hours.  In  the  evening  Mark  Beaubien 


"THE    SAUGANASH,"  AS  ERECTED  BY  BEAUBIEN  IN  1832. 

would  delight  the  dancers  with  his  tuneful  fiddle;  once  in  a 
while  a  ventriloquist  or  juggler  gave  exhibitions — an  event 
which  never  failed  to  cause  a  joyful  break  in  the  monotony  of 
frontier  life.  Finally  in  1837,  the  "Sauganash"  was  even 
transferred  into  a  theatre,  for  the  use  of  a  band  of  itinerant 
players  who,  having  reached  Chicago,  determined,  for 
good  and  sufficient  reasons,  to  remain  here.  In  spite  of  the 

67 


protests  and  prayers  of  these  pioneers  of  art,  the  relentless 
city  fathers  straightway  proceeded  to  impose  a  tax  of  $100  on 
this  new  temple  of  Thespis. 

Aside  from  the  saltatory  delights  afforded  by  Beaubien's 
fiddle,  Chicago,  in  the  earliest  days,  enjoyed  few  social  pleas- 
ures. Once  in  awhile  there  was  a  big  wolf  or  duck  hunt,  in 
which  all  took  part,  but  the  hunting  ground  was  usually  con- 
fined to  what  is  now  the  businesss  center  of  Chicago — then 
but  thick  woods  or  dreary  swamps. 

The  debating  society  however  was  not  the  only  method  of 
culture  enjoyed  by  the  pioneers  of  Chicago.  In  1816  the  first 
public  school  was  established  by  a  superannuated  soldier,  form- 
erly of  the  garrison  of  Fort  Dearborn.  Besides  five  of  the 
Kinzie  children,  he  had  to  instruct  four  youngsters  from  the  fort. 
In  1820,  a  sergeant,  also  from  the  fort,  continued  the  work  of 
education  begun  by  the  old  private.  In  1832  the  school  system 
had  assumed  very  considerable  dimensions.  When  John  Wat- 
kins  came  to  town  and  announced  himself  as  professor  of  sciences 
and  belles-lettres,  Col.  Richard  T.  Hamilton  generously  put  a 
stable  at  his  disposal.  The  room  was  twelve  feet  square  and 
desks  and  benches  were  manufactured  with  a  view  less  to 
elegance  than  durability,  out  of  old  dry-goods  boxes.  There 
were  twelve  pupils  who  sat  at  Watkins  feet — four  white  child- 
ren and  eight  half-breeds  of  various  degrees. 

The  first  baptism  took  place  in  1821,  when  the  Jesuit  father, 
Stephen  D.  Badin,  baptized  a  son  of  Beaubien.  The  first  ser- 
mon was  delivered  in  1825  by  a  Baptist  minister,  Isaac  Mc- 
Coy, who  on  invitation  of  Indian  Agent  Wolcott  came  to 
Chicago  on  ration  day  of  the  Indians,  and  attempted  to 
instruct  his  red  brothers  in  the  Protestant  religion. 

During  the  early  '3o's  a  certain  progressive  turn  of  affairs 
is  noticeable  in  the  flourishing  settlement;  the  characteristically 
Indian  and  the  half-savage  began  to  yield  to  a  better  civiliza- 
tion. Heretofore  the  men  had  been  in  the  habit  of  dressing 
more  or  less  in  the  Indian  fashion,  and  beard  and  hair  had  been 

68 


neglected.  At  this  epoch,  however,  modern  clothing  made  its 
appearance,  and  there  was  a  more  frequent  and  general 
use  of  comb,  brush  and  razor;  and  the  women!  Most  of  them 
now  rejoiced  in  leather  shoes  and  many  went  to  church  in 
dresses  and  hats  of  modern  material,  where  but  recently  the 
naive  barefoot,  with  colored  kerchief  and  home-spun  and  home- 
made garments,  had  set  the  prevailing  style. 

The  list  of  voters  in  1830  contained  but  twenty-four  names, 
or  eleven  less  than  in  1826,  but  more  of  the  voters  were  Amer- 
ican and  fewer  French-Canadians.  Things  were  already 
getting  too  fine  for  the  French  half-breeds,  and  they  com- 
menced to  seek  less  civilized  regions.  Chicago  at  that  time 
contained  fifteen  log  houses  and  about  one-hundred  inhabi- 
tants, most  of  whom  had  settled  on  the  West  Side,  at  Wolf's 
Point,  where  the  Chicago  river  divides  into  the  north  and 
south  branches.  The  course  of  the  stream  in  these  days  dif- 
fered from  the  one  of  to-day.  There  was  a  bend  near  the 
lake  and  it  ran  south  for  some  distance,  parallel  to  Michigan 
avenue,  and  finally  emptied  into  the  lake  at  the  foot  of  what  is 
now  Washington  street.  It  was  as  late  as  1833  tnat  the 
United  States  government  straightened  the  stream  out  into  its 
present  channel,  which  from  time  to  time  has  been  made 
deeper  and  wider  by  the  city  authorities. 

On  the  West  Side  also  was  the  store  of  Robert  A.  Kinzie; 
on  the  North  Side  there  was  only  the  little  house  of  John  Kin- 
zie, which  stood  opposite  to  the  fort,  and  on  the  South  Side,  on 
the  corner  of  Lake  and  Market  streets,  stood  the  "  Green 
Tree  "  hotel,  not  so  proud  and  fine,  to  be  sure,  as  the  "  Sau- 
ganash  "  but  fully  able  to  satisfy  all  the  demands  at  that  time 
made  of  it.  Commerce  between  the  three  sides  was  carried  on 
by  ferries  of  the  most  primitive  description.  They  were  private 
enterprises  belonging  to  Samuel  Miller,  Archibald  Clybourne 
and  Mark  Beaubien,  but  in  spite  of  the  high  fare  charged  they 
never  paid  and  on  this  account  were  continually  neglected. 

The  first    German   settler,  Johann  Wellmacher,    arrived  in 

69 


Chicago  in  1830.  He  was  from  Frankfurt,  was  a  baker  by 
trade  and  but  17  years  old  when  he  came  to  America.  He 
made  $2,500  working  in  the  lead  mines  at  Galena,  111.,  and 
brought  this  sum  with  him  to  Chicago,  where  he  went  into 
business  for  himself.  He  was  not  successful  however  and 
died,  years  after,  a  pauper  in  Joliet.  Soon  after  Wellmacher, 
the  first  Jew  appeared,  bearing  the  common  enough  surname 
of  Cohen.  His  given  name,  Peter,  was,  however,  rather 
remarkable  for  a  Jew,  but  is  attributable  to  the  fact  that  his 
mother  was  a  Christian.  Nobody  will  be  surprised  to  learn 
that  in  the  first  newspaper  (Calhoun's  Democrat,  November 
'26,  1833)  which  appeared  in  Chicago,  he  advertised  his 
"  immense  stock  of  winter  clothing "  at  "  greatly  reduced 
prices "  and  that  he  thanked  the  public  for  the  "  enormous 
patronage"  accorded  him. 

Trade  and  commerce  developed  in  many  directions  at  the 
beginning  of  the  '3o's  and  the  immigration  was  large,  every- 
one looking  hopefully  to  the  future.  Suddenly,  however,  like 
a  clap  of  thunder  from  a  clear  sky,  came  the  news  of  a  bloody 
Indian  uprising — the  "  Black  Hawk  war  "  had  begun. 

It  is  greatly  to  the  advantage  of  us  Americans  that  the 
Indians  cannot  write.  It  is  on  this  account,  perhaps,  that  in 
our  conflicts  with  the  red  men,  we  are  ever  the  magnanimous 
heroes,  the  defenders  of  innocence,  the  noble  victors  in  a 
strife  into  which  we  are  always  unwillingly  forced,  while  the 
Indians,  on  the  other  hand,  are  so  often  bloodthirsty  savages  and 
treacherous  cowards.  In  the  interest  of  truth  one  could  wish 
that  there  were  an  Indian  historian  who  could  describe  the 
origin  and  course  of  the  conflicts  between  his  race  and  the  whites. 

We  call  savages  those  first  Americans  who  were  discovered 
with  this  country,  but  neither  barbaric  nor  savage  was  their 
treatment  of  Cartier,  Champlain,  Jolliet,  Marquette,  La  Salle, 
Tonti  and  a  host  of  other  early  explorers  and  missionaries 
who  were  almost  invaribly  regarded  by  the  natives  as  higher 
beings  and  whose  wish  was  law. 

70 


Only  when,  with  the  little  bands  of  the  best  people  of 
Europe,  came  also  the  very  worst  classes  in  great  numbers, 
did  the  character  of  the  Indian  become  vicious  and  his  treat- 
ment of  the  new  comers  change.  The  numberless  Indian 
horrors,  chronicled  in  the  histories  of  the  last  three  centuries, 
appear  in  a  far  milder  light  when  it  is  remembered  how  much 
the  Indians  suffered  from  the  greed,  brutality  and  viciousness 
of  those  whom  they  had  joyously  welcomed  as  strangers  but 
who  in  their  turn  had  abused,  oppressed  or  driven  away  their 
red  hosts. 

Indeed,  it  is  not  necessary  to  turn  to  past  centuries  to  show 
how  many  Indian  wars  and  Indian  horrors  have  been  caused 
by  conscienceless  whites,  especially  by  rascally  contractors 
and  thievish  Indian  agents  who  have  exposed  the  wretched 
redskins  to  death  from  cold  or  starvation  in  order  to  use  the 
plunder  thus  obtained  in  drinking  bouts,  or  by  frontiersmen 
and  adventurers  of  the  wild  west  who,  far  removed  from  all 
restraining  influences  of  civilization,  lent  emphasis  to  their  pass- 
ing wrishes  and  whims  with  rifle  or  bowie-knife. 

Thus,  for  the  so-called  "  Black  Hawk  "  war,  the  whites  were 
in  the  first  instance  responsible,  having  driven  the  Indians  to  the 
very  verge  of  despair;  and  even  if,  as  the  historians  of  the 
northwest  comfortably  relate  at  some  length,  the  Indians 
deserved  their  annihilating  defeat,  still  no  one  won  any  laurels 
in  its  administration.  Were  the  pitiful  causes  less  significant — 
less  characteristic  of  the  then  existing  conditions,  and  had  the 
antecedent  events  less  powerfully  influenced  the  development 
of  the  northwest,  it  would  not  be  worth  while  to  detail  them. 
For  the  less  said  about  them  the  better  for  all  concerned — but 
especially  for  those  supernumeraries  who,  in  the  role  of  saviours 
of  their  country,  lounged  about  the  stage  of  public  events  and 
on  this  account  long  afervvards  attracted  undue  attention  by 
their  self-assumed  importance. 

The  cause  of  the  war  may  be  told  briefly :  "  Ote  toi  de  la 
que  je  m'y  mette"  (clear  out  of  here,  so  I  can  come). 


The  Sacs,  who  for  almost  a  century  had  held  the  eastern 
bank  of  the  Mississippi,  and  who  had  once  possessed  the  whole 
region  between  the  mouth  of  the  Wisconsin  and  that  of  the 
Missouri,  had,  a  short  distance  above  the  mouth  of  the  Rock 
river,  their  principal  settlement,  which  they  called  Saukenuk. 
Here  500  families  lived,  forming  the  largest  of  all  western 
Indian  towns,  and  the  main  meeting  place  of  the  Sacs  and  Foxes. 
Here  all  their  big  pow-wows  were  held,  their  feasts  celebrated, 
their  religious  ceremonies  performed  and  their  dead  buried. 
For  Indians,  they  had  a  remarkable  and  unusual  love  for  this 
home  of  theirs,  and  were  especially  proud  of  the  adjoining  fields, 
some  3000  acres  of  the  most  fertile  soil,  which  they  cultivated 
as  well  as  they  knew  how.  There  they  were  in  no  one's  way; 
the  nearest  settlement  of  whites  was  more  than  fifty  miles 
from  Saukenuk  and  rich  and  fertile  soil  was  at  that  time  to  be 
had  elsewhere  for  the  asking. 

In  spite  of  this,  many  of  the  pioneers  turned  greedy  eyes 
toward  the  possessions  of  the  savages,  and  moved  heaven  and 
earth  to,  either  alone  or  with  the  help  of  the  government, 
drive  the  Indians  out  of  their  homes. 

Since  the  agitation  of  Tecumseh  the  relations  between  the 
Indians  and  whites  had  been  reasonably  pacific;  but  now  on 
both  sides  numerous  attacks  and  deeds  of  violence  took 
place — none  of  them  to  be  sure  attaining  any  considerable 
dimensions. 

To  take  for  granted  that  the  white  population  of  that  thinly 
settled  region  consisted  at  this  time  entirely  of  people  of  ideal 
characters,  concerned  only  in  honestly  and  honorably  complet- 
ng  their  hard  days  toil  in  the  service  of  progress  and  cul- 
ture, were  an  error.  Together  with  the  pioneers  from 
Pennsylvania,  Ohio  and  Indiana,  who  were  partly  hunters, 
partly  farmers  and  stock-raisers,  there  was  no  lack  of 
that  class  of  border  ruffians  who  even  to-day  form  the 
inevitable  companions  of  the  worthy  settlers  of  the  far  west 
and  are  as  much  a  plague  as  reptiles  and  poisonous  serpents 

72 


in  the  hot  zones.  For  this  gang,  which  goes  withersoever 
there  is  little  danger  of  having  to  work,  and  where  police 
and  penitentiaries  are  still  reposing  in  the  womb  of  time, 
an  Indian  war  forms  an  ever  welcome  diversion — for  then 
there  is  blood  and  whisky  and  plunder. 

But  even  the  best  of  the  pioneers  have  but  little  to  interpose 
against  such  a  war,  for  it  brings  money  to  the  people  and  that 


BLACK    HAWK. 

is  what  they  lack,  opens  up  new  and  fertile  lands  to  be 
divided  as  soon  as  their  red  occupants  are  killed  or  driven 
away,  and  last  but  not  least,  furnishes  an  opportunity  for 
wiping  out  all  old  scores  and  beginning  over  again.  If,  in 
addition  to  these  facts,  the  reader  will  bear  in  mind  that  the 
English  never  lost  an  opportunity  to  stir  up  trouble  between 

73 


the  whites  and  Indians,  even  going  so  far  as  to  send  agents 
down  from  Canada  for  this  very  purpose,  he  will  be  able  to 
form  a  fairly  accurate  idea  of  the  situation  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  unhappy  war  whose  inglorious  course  might  easily  have 
been  conjectured  by  any  one  knowing  the  miserable  condition 
of  affairs. 

From  whatever  point  of  view  the  Black  Hawk  war  be 
considered,  the  facts  remain  that  by  it  more  than  a  thousand 
human  lives  were  sacrificed,  eight  thousand  militiamen  and 
fifteen  hundred  regulars  had  to  take  the  field  to  drive  five 
hundred  Indians,  with  their  women  and  children,  from  hearth 
and  home,  that  the  campaign  lasted  for  more  than  three 
months  and  cost  several  millions  of  dollars. 

"Black  Hawk,"  a  chief  of  the  Sacs,  was  the  last  Indian  to 
play  a  prominent  role  in  the  history  of  Illinois,  the  Black 
Hawk  war  forming,  as  it  were,  the  close  of  the  Indian  era  in 
the  state. 

An  adherent  of  Tecumseh,  under  whom  he  led  over  500 
warriors  in  campaigns  against  the  Americans,  Black  Hawk 
disputed  the  legality  of  the  treaties  made  by  Gen  Harrison  in 
St.  Louis  in  1804.  His  principal  contention  was  that  the 
signatures  of  the  Indians  were  fraudulently  obtained  by  intoxi- 
cating chiefs  before  asking  them  to  sign.  Nevertheless  he 
himself  in  the  year  1816  was  induced  to  sign  a  similar  treaty, 
by  which  the  Sacs  and  Foxes  relinquished  to  the  United 
States  all  their  land  east  of  the  Mississippi  river,  with  the  pro- 
viso, however,  that  members  of  these  tribes  could  dwell  and 
hunt  in  these  lands,  as  long  and  as  far  as  they  were  under 
the  sole  control  of  the  United  States  government.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  treaty  by  far  the  greater  number  of  the  Indians, 
under  the  leadership  of  Chief  Keokuk,  went  to  Iowa  in  1823, 
settling  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Mississippi.  Black  Hawk 
and  his  adherents,  however,  refused  to  quit  their  old  home 
at  Saukenuk.  There  they  stayed,  going  out  on  their  regular 
winter  hunting  expeditions  and  in  the  summer  diligently 

74 


cultivating  the  soil.  Thus  they  comfortably  provided  for 
themselves  and  families.  At  the  instigation  of  the  settlers, 
however,  Gov.  Edwards  induced  President  Jackson  to  order 
the  military  authorities  to  eject  the  Indians  (1829)  in  case  they 
should  not  voluntarily  relinguish  their  lands  before  April  i, 
1830,  and  take  up  their  abode  on  the  further  side  of  the 
Mississippi  river. 

Black  Hawk  resolved  to  defend  what  he  believed  to  be  his 
rights  and  to  defy  the  government.  He  did  not  make  the 
slightest  preparation  to  move.  When,  however,  in  the  spring 
of  1830  the  tribe  returned  from  their  hunt,  Black  Hawk  found 
that  a  number  of  white  squatters  had  seized  the  greater  part 
of  the  land  and  had  even  burned  down  the  Indians'  wigwams 
and  desecrated  their  graves  by  leveling  off  with  plow  and 
harrow  the  mounds  of  the  dead.  Without  retaliation  but  not 
without  protest,  Black  Hawk  submitted  to  the  inevitable,  con- 
tenting himself  with  the  little  the  whites  had  left  him.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  next  winter  he  and  his  warriors  went  on 
their  hunting  trip  as  usual.  The  season  was  uncommonly 
severe,  the  hunt  not  at  all  successful,  and  it  was  with  much 
discouragement  that  the  Indians  returned  to  Saukenuk,  from 
which  the  whites  straightway  attempted  to  drive  them.  Black 
Hawk  announced  with  much  dignity  that  the  land  belonged 
to  him  and  that  upon  it  he  intended  to  dwell.  Thereupon  the 
squatters  petitioned  the  governor  (Reynolds)  to  have  the 
Indians  removed  by  force.  As  a  result  2500  militiamen  and 
regulars  advanced  on  foot  and  on  horseback  June  5,  1831, 
against  Saukenuk  and  its  little  band  of  poorly  armed,  meanly 
clad  and  scantily  provisioned  Indians,  numbering  all  told  not 
more  than  1300  souls.  In  the  face  of  the  imposing  military 
array  of  the  whites,  who  were  more  awful  in  appearance  than 
in  reality,  Black  Hawk  and  his  people,  under  cover  of 
night,  fled  to  the  western  shore  of  the  Mississippi,  leaving  the 
little  village  of  Saukenuk  to  be  destroyed  by  the  brave  army 
of  white  men. 

75 


Black  Hawk  then  allowed  himself  to  be  scared  into  going  to 
Gen.  Gaine's  headquarters,  where  he  was  compelled  to  sign  a 
document  by  which  he  pledged  himself  never  to  return  to  the 
eastern  shore  of  the  Mississippi.  This  was  the  first  act  of  the 
tragedy.  In  the  second,  Black  Hawk  and  his  band,  almost 
crazed  by  the  pangs  of  hunger,  are  found  in  a  wilderness 
beyond  the  Mississippi.  Neapope,  one  of  Black  Hawk's 
lieutenants  has  been  hastily  sent  with  a  secret  message  to 
Canada  and  also  to  the  Pottawatomies  and  Winnebagoes,  and 
has  returned  with  good  news.  The  English,  as  well  as  their 
old  Indian  allies  and  relatives,  stand  ready  to  aid  the  refugees. 

April  6,  1832,  the  chief  prepared  to  return  to  Saukenuk,  and 
with  his  500  warriors,  their  wives  and  children,  bag  and  bag- 
gage, crossed  the  Mississippi  and  marched  straight  toward  his 
old  home.  This  of  course  was  in  violation  of  the  agreement 
Gen.  Gaines  had  forced  from  him  the  year  before.  Black 
Hawk  had  intended,  as  he  afterwards  assures  us,  to  obtain 
permission  to  remain  in  Saukenuk,  and  in  case  this  was  denied 
him,  to  help  the  Winnebagoes  with  their  farming.  Hardly, 
however,  had  he  crossed  the  Mississippi,  before  he  saw  he  had 
committed  a  fatal  error.  Through  the  influence  of  Sauganash, 
the  Pottawatomies  around  Chicago  resolved  at  the  last 
minute  not  to  join  him,  and  of  the  Winnebagoes  but  few 
appeared.  Without  allies  the  struggle  against  the  soldiers 
would  be  hopeless,  and  Black  Hawk  resolved  to  embrace  the 
first  opportunity  to  return  to  the  further  shore  of  the  Mississippi, 
and  if  possible  avoid  bloodshed.  But  fate  had  willed  other- 
wise. 

The  military  authorities  of  the  United  States,  in  the  person 
of  Gen.  Henry  Atkinson,  in  Fort  Armstrong,  and  the  gover- 
nor of  Illinois,  attempted  jointly  to  carry  out  plans  which  would 
result  in  the  suppression  or  annihilation  of  Black  Hawk  and 
his  warriors.  Not  less  than  100  militia  companies  and  1300 
regulars,  300  from  Fort  Crawford  and  Fort  Leavenworth, 
were  gathered  at  Fort  Armstrong,  May  7>  1832.  Besides 

76 


these  troops,  200  cavalrymen  did  guard  duty  between  Rock 
Island  and  the  Illinois  river,  and  200  more,  under  Maj.  Stillman, 
patrolled  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Mississippi.  Jefferson  Davis 
and  Abraham  Lincoln  each  commanded  companies  in  this 
campaign,  and  Zachary  Taylor,  afterwards  president,  was  a 
colonel. 

The  army,  divided  into  two  troops,  commanded  by  Gen. 
Atkinson  and  Gen.  Whiteside,  reached  Dixon  May  12,  1832. 
Here  they  met  the  two  cavalry  companies.  While  the  infantry- 
men of  the  militia  were  scantily  provisioned,  the  proud  cavalry 
had  good  things  in  abundance,  and  not  only  both  ate  and 
drank  their  fill,  but  had  large  quantities  of  ammunition.  On  this 
account  they  wished  to  operate  independently  of  the  infantry, 
and  were  commissioned  by  Gov.  Reynolds  to  patrol  the 
country  along  "  Old  Man's  Creek." 

It  was  May  14;  Stillman's  bold  horsemen  had  just  secured 
a  well-protected  position  about  thirty  miles  northeast  of 
Dixon,  and  had  made  themselves  comfortable,  and  pictures- 
quely grouped  around  the  camp  fire,  they  leisurely  ate  a 
copious  meal,  and  the  whisky  flask  was  being  diligently  passed, 
when  one  of  Black  Hawk's  spies  caught  sight  of  them.  He 
immediately  rushed  back  to  camp  with  the  news  and  Black 
Hawk,  believing  them  to  be  Atkinson's  army,  sent  three  of 
his  young  warriors  with  a  flag  of  truce  to  announce  that  the 
Indians  wrere  willing  to  enter  into  peace  negotiations.  Five 
other  wrarriors  were  dispatched  to  watch  from  secluded  points 
how  the  three  were  received.  The  bearers  of  the  flag  of 
truce  were  halted  by  the  guard,  taken  to  Stillman's  head- 
quarters and  made  prisoners.  The  five  spies  were  discovered, 
pursued  and  shot  at.  Two  received  mortal  wounds,  but  the 
others  escaped  to  Black  Hawk's  camp.  The  chief  was 
just  getting  ready  to  himself  carry  the  white  flag  to  the 
headquarters  of  the  soldiers,  but  when  he  learned  the 
fate  of  his  emissaries  he  tore  the  flag  in  shreds  and 
passionately  asked  his  handful  of  warriors,  some  forty, 

77 


who  were  then  with  him,  to  avenge  their  comrades.  (*) 
The  little  band  of  Indians,  maddened  by  this  treacherous 
treatment,  hastened  at  once  toward  the  hostile  camp.  No 
sooner  did  they  come  in  sight  of  Stillman's  heroes  than  the 
latter  in  the  wildest  confusion  galloped  forth  to  meet  them. 
Black  Hawk  sought  shelter  and  calmly  awaited  the  attack. 
When  within  gunshot  of  the  Indians  the  brave  cavalrymen 
seemed  suddenly  to  remember  that  discretion  hath  charms  as 
well  as  valor,  and  so  halted.  Then  far  and  wide  resounded  the 
the  wild  war  cry  of  the  Sacs,  and  Black  Hawk  galloped  forth 
from  his  concealment  brandishing  his  tomahawk.  Behind  him 
dashed  his  forty  warriors  firing  at  the  valiant  200.  Hardly  ever 
has  anyone  disappeared  so  quickly  from  a  scene  of  intended 
heroism.  Like  200  madmen,  the  soldiers,  agonized  by  a  ter- 
rible fear,  galloped  away  toward  their  camp ;  past  it  they  flew, 
leaving  all  behind,  past  creeks  and  hills  they  sped  and  slack- 
ened their  speed  only  when  they  arrived  once  more  in  Dixon 
where  they  believed  themselves  comparatively  secure.  Many, 
no  longer  burning  to  pluck  the  laurel  wreath  of  fame,  hastened 
directly  home. 

"  Black  Hawk  has  broken  loose  with  2000  of  his  blood- 
thirsty warriors."  This  cry  of  terror  resounded  through  the 
whole  state ;  the  fear  which  the  homeward-rushing  cavalry- 
men had  spread  everywhere  was  unparalleled.  The  demoral- 
ized settlers  rushed  hastily  to  the  nearest  forts  and  there 
sought  refuge — even  up  to  Chicago  the  fugitives  hurried — 
men,  women  and  children,  and  at  one  time  Fort  Dearborn 
sheltered  not  less  than  1000  of  them. 

No  one  was  more  surprised  at  the  turn  affairs  had  taken 
than  was  Black  Hawk  himself.  The  half-starved  chief,  who 
a  thousand  times  had  cursed  his  crossing  of  the  Mississipi, 
forsaken  by  his  former  allies,  sadly  anxious  for  the  immediate 


*  According  to  thoroughly  trustworthy  reports,  this  stupid  violation  of  the  rules  of  all 
civilized  warfare,  was  caused  by  a  too  frequent  use  of  the  whisky  bottle  in  Stillman's 
camp. 

78 


future  and  only  too  ready  to  surrender  to  the  whites — had  all 
at  once  become  a  much  dreaded  man,  a  terror  to  tens  of 
thousands. 

The  benefit  which  Black  Hawk  and  his  followers  derived 
from  this  change,  consisted  primarily  in  a  hearty  meal,  for 
Stillman's  cavalry  was,  as  above  mentioned,  abundantly  pro- 
visioned. Weapons  also  had  been  captured,  and  blankets  and 
ammunition — the  Indians  were  happy.  After  their  meal  they 
collected  the  spoils  and  set  off  in  a  northeasterly  direction,  up 
the  Keshwaukee  river  to  the  swamps  of  Lake  Koshkonong. 
After  here  concealing  the  women,  children  and  baggage, 
Black  Hawk  set  out  on  a  recruiting  expedition  to  the  Potta- 
watomies  and  Winnebagoes.  Then  commenced  the  terrible 
guerrilla  warfare  from  which  the  inhabitants  of  northwestern 
Illinois  suffered  so  much.  Divided  into  small  bands  the 
hostile  Indians  scattered  in  all  directions  and  robbed  and  stole 
wherever  they  could.  Many  a  dastardly  murder  and  cow- 
ardly incendiarism  marked  their  path.  Especially  cruel  and 
feared  was  the  murderous  half-breed,  Mike  Girty,  who  led  a 
band  of  Pottawatomies  and  was  responsible  for  many  of  the 
terrors  of  the  war.  Meanwhile  the  militia  had  lost  their 
interest  in  military  life  to  such  a  degree  that  the  enforcement 
of  discipline  was  out  of  the  question  and  the  commander  was 
compelled  (May  28)  to  send  them  home.  Gen.  Winfield 
Scott  with  one  thousand  men  was  then  ordered  to  Illinois 
from  the  east,  a  circumstance  which  was  fateful  to  the  little 
village  of  Chicago,  crowded  full  as  it  was,  of  fugitives,  for  it 
was  thus  that  Asiatic  cholera  was  here  introduced.  It  first 
broke  out  in  the  vessels  which  had  transported  the  troops. 
The  scenes  at  the  landing  mocks  description.  The  sick 
soldiers  were  encamped  by  the  hundreds  along  the  sandy 
shore  of  the  lake.  Nearly  half  of  them  died  at  once.  The 
news  of  this  terrible  scourge  spread  to  all  places  connected 
with  Chicago  and  the  town  was  consequently  avoided  by 
everyone,  commerce  and  trade  were  at  a  standstill  and  the 

79 


terrified  inhabitants  fled.  The  remnant  of  Gen.  Scott's  men 
were  transported  as  soon  as  practicable  to  the  seat  of  war,  but 
arrived  there  too  late  to  participate  in  the  slaughter  of  the 
Indians. 

Besides  the  regular  United  States  troops  several  thousand 
volunteers,  recruited  after  the  inglorious  dismissal  of  the 
militia,  were  engaged  in  the  extermination  of  the  Indians. 
There  were  many  skirmishes  with  the  small,  roving  bands, 
but  no  battle.  Black  Hawk,  knowing  that  he  could  not  drive 
the  troops  before  him,  was  clever  enough  to  drive  them  after 
him. 

Finally  Gen.  James  D.  tlenry,  commanding  the  third 
brigade,  got  reliable  information  from  a  French-Indian  fur- 
trader  as  to  the  movements  of  the  elusive  Black  Hawk.  The 
Indians  were  hastening  by  forced  marches  westward  to  the 
Mississippi,  evidently  intending  to  escape  to  the  further  side 
and  thus  avoid  punishment.  When  the  soldiers  learned  of  the 
flight  of  the  Indians  and  of  their  desperate  condition  they 
could  hardly  be  restrained.  A  wild  chase  began.  Abandoned 
supplies  scattered  along  the  road,  cloths,  blankets,  cooking 
utensils,  worn-out  and  starved  horses,  Indian  warriors  too  sick 
to  flee,  indicated  the  haste  with  which  the  enemy  was 
attempting  to  escape.  Where  Madison,  the  capital  of  Wis- 
consin, now  stands  the  rear  guard  of  the  Indians,  commanded 
by  Neapope,  was  overtaken  by  the  soldiers  about  3  o'clock  in 
the  afternoon  of  July  24,  1832.  Fierce  conflicts,  lasting  until 
late  at  night,  then  took  place  on  the  heights  along  the  shore 
of  the  Wisconsin  river.  Black  Hawk  himself,  who  was  satis- 
fied that  the  whites  had  determined  to  completely  annihilate 
his  tribe,  hastened  to  the  assistance  of  Neapope  with  twenty 
warriors  and  fought  desperately,  hoping  to  cover  the  retreat 
of  the  main  body  of  his  followers.  Under  the  cover  of  night 
several  rafts  were  hastily  constructed  and,  together  with  such 
boats  as  had  been  carried  along,  were  filled  with  the  sick  and 
the  helpless  old  men  and  a  part  of  the  women  and  children  and 

So 


sent  down  the  Wisconsin.  In  spite  of  the  capture  of  his  flag- 
bearers  through  whom  he  had  asked  for  peace  and  mercy  and 
the  unjustifiable  killing  of  their  comrades  who  had  been  sent 
out  to  see  what  had  become  of  them,  and  in  spite  of  many  an 
other  unmistakable  sign  that  the  white  officers  bore  a  bitter 
hatred  towards  the  Indians,  Black  Hawk  had  hopes  that  the 
garrison  at  Fort  Crawford,  which  guarded  the  mouth  of  the 
Wisconsin  river,  would  let  the  old  men  and  defenceless 
women  and  children  pass  by  and  so  enable  them  to  cross 
the  Mississippi.  But  the  people  in  the  fort  had  no  sooner 
caught  sight  of  the  boats  than  they  commenced  extensive  pre- 
parations to  kill  the  passengers.  Fifteen  Indian  women  and 
children  fell  dead  in  the  boats  and  rafts  after  one  of  the 
murderous  musketry  volleys  from  the  fort,  fifty,  who,  during 
the  panic  had  jumped  into  the  river,  were  drowned,  four  old 
men  and  thirty-two  women  and  children  were  captured  and 
of  the  remainder,  who  succeeded  in  reaching  the  woods  on 
the  shores  of  the  Wisconsin  river,  all  but  twelve  either 
starved  or  were  tomahawked  by  the  merciless  Menominees, 
who  had  been  hired  for  that  purpose  by  the  whites 

After  Black  Hawk  and  his  warriors  had  dispatched  the 
boats  and  rafts  to  their  horrible  fate,  they  again  succeeded 
in  eluding  their  pursuers  and  it  was  a  week  before  the  whites 
got  traces  of  them — and  such  traces!  The  young  trees  and 
bushes  had  been  peeled  and  their  bark  had  served  the  Indians 
for  food.  Starved  horses  lay  along  the  road  in  great  numbers, 
but  all  had  been  carefully  stripped  of  every  edible  portion. 
Many  a  warrior's  dead  body  also,  bore  stern  witness  of  the 
terrible  want  of  the  fugitives. 

Finally  they  had  reached  the  Mississippi — a  few  hours  more 
and  they  were  safe — but  while,  inspired  by  new  hope,  they 
were  at  work  on  rafts  on  which  to  cross  the  river,  a  new  mis- 
fortune suddenly  and  unexpectedly  befell  them.  The  United 
States  steamer  "Warrior,"  which  had  been  sent  up  the  river 
with  instructions  to  its  commander  to  unite  the  Sioux  against 

6  8l 


Black  Hawk,  was  returning  and  reached  the  camp  of  the 
fugitives  before  the  almost  exhausted  Indians  were  able  to 
seek  shelter.  In  token  of  his  surrender  Black  Hawk  himself 
displayed  the  flag  of  truce,  but  when  for  lack  of  a  boat  he  was 
unable  to  comply  with  the  order  of  the  commander  of  the 
"  Warrior "  to  go  on  board,  the  latter  ordered  a  volley  of 
grape-shot  to  be  fired  at  the  half-dead  savages,  so  killing  and 
wounding  many  of  them.  The  Indians  returned  the  fire,  and 
the  captain  thereupon  continued  on  his  trip  to  Prairie  du  Chien. 
The  Indians  now  hastened  their  preparations  for  crossing  the 
Mississippi.  But  the  delay  caused  by  the  attack  of  the 
steamer  was  fatal.  The  soldiers  were  already  hard  on  their 
heels.  As  long  as  he  could,  Black  Hawk  used  his  few, 
hastily  constructed  rafts  to  send  as  many  of  his  warriors  as 
possible  across  the  river  and  then,  forseeing  the  inevitable  fate 
of  his  tribe,  took  advantage  of  night  to  flee,  and  sought  refuge 
among  the  Winnebagoes. 

The  next  morning,  August  2,  the  soldiers  finally  reached 
the  Indians  and  the  longed-for  slaughter  commenced.  With 
bayonets,  clubbed  muskets  and  cold  lead  the  last  of  the  Sacs 
were  dispatched — even  those  who  had  thrown  themselves  into 
the  river  and  those  who  had  dragged  their  starved  bodies  into 
the  branches  of  trees  became  the  easy  prey  of  the  well- 
directed  bullets  of  the  sharp-shooters.  Neither  women  nor 
children  were  spared.  The  Indians,  intending  to  sell  their 
lives  as  dearly  as  possible,  killed  twenty  whites  and  wounded 
twelve.  Of  the  red  men,  150  lay  dead  on  the  battlefield  and 
as  many  more  were  drowned.  Forty  Indian  women  and  girls 
were  captured  and  about  300  of  the  fugitives  succeeded  in 
gaining  the  western  shore  of  the  river.  A  more  pitiable 
crowd  of  humanity  has  been  seldom  seen:  sick,  emaciated, 
starved,  bleeding  from  undressed  wounds — this  was  the  last 
of  Black  Hawk's  warriors.  Here  they  were  finally,  where 
the  government  wanted  them!  There  was  nothing  in  the 
wide  world  that  they  could  call  their  own,  and  most  of  their 

82 


friends  and  relatives  had  been  sent  by  the  whites  to  the  happy 
hunting  grounds  of  the  great  father.  But  the  poor  wretches 
were  at  least  alive,  and  the  constant  race  for  life  or  the 
agonies  of  death  were  passed.  Thus  may  have  reasoned 
these  creatures  of  sorrow  who  took  it  for  granted  that  their 
cup  of  bitterness  was  full  to  overflowing.  Alas!  It  was  not 
long  before  they  learned  to  what  degree  of  beastly  brutality 
even  whites  could  degrade  themselves;  for  Gen.  Atkinson 
disgraced  the  name  of  humanity  and  civilization  by  letting 
loose  upon  the  defenceless  fugitives  a  band  of  bloodthirsty 
Sioux,  who  with  their  tomahawks  and  stone  battle  axes 
mercilessly  crushed  the  skulls  of  all  who  could  not  run  away 
or  creep  into  the  reeds  along  the  swamps.  More  than  100 
corpses  covered  the  scene  of  the  Sioux  carnage.  Many 
of  the  Sacs  died  from  exhaustion  while  fleeing  and  of  all  who 
had  left  with  Black  Hawk  in  the  spring  but  a  mere  handful 
returned  to  the  place  of  banishment.  The  Black  Hawk  war 
was  at  an  end  and  with  this  bloody  finale  the  Indian  era  in 
Illinois  terminated — the  red  dawn  of  a  new  and  fairer  day 
already  glowed  on  the  horizon. 

Black  Hawk  was  turned  over  by  the  Winnebagoes  to  the 
United  States,  August  27,  and  after  the  signing  of  the  formal 
treaty  of  peace  on  September  21,  he,  the  "Prophet,"  and 
Neapope,  were  kept  for  a  time  as  hostages  in  Fortress  Monroe. 
Later  on  Black  Hawk  was  put  in  charge  of  the  friendly  Sac 
chief  Keokuk,  his  former  rival — a  fact  which  more  than  any- 
thing else  in  his  life  pained  the  proud  old  warrior,  who,  when 
but  15  years  old,  had  distinguished  himself  on  the  battlefield 
and  who  for  forty-five  years  had  been  the  most  prominent 
leader  of  his  people. 

In  the  unhappy  role  of  one  deposed,  he  did  something 
which  the  fallen  great  have  of  late  often  resorted  to,  but  which 
before  Black  Hawk's  time  had  never  been  done  by  an  Indian 
— he  dictated  his  memoirs  to  an  enterprising  publisher,  and 
they  appeared  in  book  form  in  1834.  October  3,  1838,  Black 

84 


Hawk,  after  almost  completing  his  7ist  year,  finally  found 
eternal  repose — that  is  to  say,  he  did  not  find  it,  for  his  body 
was  stolen,  and — sic  transit  gloria! — his  skeleton  was  publicly 
exhibited  as  a  curiosity.  Even  his  bones  had  a  remarkable 
career — until  in  1855,  when  among  other  curiosities  of  the 
historical  society  in  Burlington,  they  were  destroyed  by  fire. 

With  all  due  deference  to  the  reputation  of  his  mother,  it  is 
very  probable  that  this  celebrated  Indian  was  a  Frenchman,  or, 
rather  a  French  half-breed.  His  personal  appearance,  the 
fact  that  he  left  memoirs,  and  the  circumstance  that  in  his  na- 
tive place,  Kaskaskia,  the  relations  between  French  and 
Indians  were  not  well  calculated  to  preserve  the  purity  of  either 
race,  make  this  theory  probable. 

*  *  * 

The  Black  Hawk  war,  the  annihilation  of  the  last  Indians  to 
fight  for  hearth  and  home,  caused  a  sensation  throughout  the 
land.  One  result  was  that  the  crowd  of  officers,  newspaper 
correspondents  and  speculators  who  had  come  from  the  east  to 
the  seat  of  war,  called  public  .attention  in  a  new  and  almost 
unheard  of  manner,  to  the  west  and  its  rich  resources,  and  an 
influx  of  interprising,  energetic  men  soon  followed.  Manufac- 
turing industries  made  great  strides  and  speculation  took  its 
first  bold  chances.  Various  railroad  projects,  engineered  by 
G.  S.  Hubbard,  Chicago's  representative  in  the  state  legis- 
lature, and  by  others,  found  but  little  favor  outside,  but  the 
canal  project  made  steady,  although  sometimes  slow  progress. 
In  1833,  Congress  appropriated  $30,000  to  deepen  the  mouth 
of  the  Chicago  river  and  thus  made  that  stream  accessible  to 
the  commerce  of  the  great  lakes.  In  the  summer  of  that  same 
year,  no  less  than  150  frame  houses  were  erected.  Chicago 
was  incorporated  as  a  village,  August  5,  1833,  and  at  an  elec- 
tion, held  immediately  thereafter,  1 1 1  votes  were  cast.  At  that 
time  the  tax  levy  amounted  to  $48.90. 

In  1834  was  completed  the  first  wooden  drawbridge,  a  most 
important  undertaking  for  the  domestic  trade  of  the  town. 

85 


The  bridge  was  erected  at  the  foot  of  Dearborn  street  and 
connected  the  North  and  South  Sides. 

In  1833  but  four  ships  arrived  at  Chicago,  but  in  1834  no 
less  than  two  hundred  vessels  entered  the  enlarged  and 
improved  harbor. 

The  immigration,  both  by  land  and  water,  increased  rapidly, 
and  in  1835  Chicago  could  boast  a  population  of  3265  souls. 
There  were  398  dwelling  houses,  4  warehouses,  29  dry  goods 


CHICAGO'S  FIRST  DRAWBRIDGE 

stores,  19  grocery  stores,  5  hardware  stores,  3  drug  stores, 
19  taverns,  26  wholesale  establishments  and,  also,  not  less 
than  17  law  offices. 

The  first  county  court  house,  erected  on  the  southwest 
corner  of  Clark  and  Randolph  streets — a  brick  building, 
remarkably  fine  for  the  times,  was  opened  to  the  public  in 
1836,  and  the  same  year  the  "  Chicago  American,"  a  Whig 
organ  in  opposition  to  the  "  Democrat,"  issued  its  first  paper. 

86 


In  the  spring  following  a  branch  of  the  "  State  Bank  of 
Illinois"  was  established  in  Chicago.  In  May,  1836,  the  first 
sailing  vessel  built  in  Chicago  was  launched,  and  on  July  4th 
work  on  the  new  canal  was  formally  begun.  This  important 
event  was  marked  with  a  grand  celebration,  speeches  being 
made  by  Dr.  Wm.  B.  Egan  and  Gurdon  S.  Hubbard,  after 
which  there  was  a  general  jollification.  It  was  in  1827  that 
Daniel  P.  Cook  had  put  the  canal  project  on  a  firm  footing 


FIRST    CHICAGO    COURT    HOUSE. 


by  securing  the  passage  of  a  bill  granting  the  state  alternate 
sections  of  land  for  six  miles  on  each  mile  of  the  channel,  to 
aid  in  its  building.  In  1836  the  state  legislature  passed  its 
canal  bill,  a  measure  of  vital  importance  to  the  undertaking. 
The  canal  was  finally  completed  April  19,  1848,  almost  twelve 
years  after  Col.  Archer  had  "  turned  the  first  shovelful  of 
earth." 


88 


The  City,  Chicago. 


DESPITE  Chicago's  characteristic 
trinity,  the  North,  West  and  South- 
siders,  in  mass-meeting  assembled, 
October  26,  1836,  unanimously 
agreed  that  the  town  should  be 
given  a  regular  municipal  organi- 
zation. Accordingly  the  legisla- 
ture was  petitioned  and  shortly 
after  Chicago  received  its  city 
charter.  On  the  first  Tuesday  in 
May,  1837,  the  first  election  was 
held  in  the  new  city.  William  B. 
Ogden,  later  one  of  the  western 
railway  kings,  was  elected  mayor. 
Chicago  was  at  this  time  divided 
into  6  wards  and  the  city  boundaries 
were  North  avenue  on  the  north, 
Wood  street  on  the  west,  Twenty- 
second  street  on  the  south  and  the 
lake  on  the  east,  save  for  a  part  of 
section  10,  which  was  reserved  by 
the  United  States  Government  for 
a  military  post;  in  addition,  there  belonged  to  the  city  a  half-mile 
strip,  known  as  the  old  city  cemetery,  lying  along  the  shore  of 
the  lake  east  of  north  Clark  street  and  north  of  North  avenue. 
The  Chicago  of  1837  was  laid  out  on  a  generous  scale, 
covering  a  surface  of  about  10  square  miles,  although  the  pop- 
ulation numbered  but  4179  people.  But  the  city  soon  enough 
covered  the  whole  territory,  and  in  1847,  an  annexation  of  new 
territory  was  found  necessary.  The  year  1853  brought  a  new 
extension  of  the  city  limits,  and  1854  still  another.  In  1863, 


Wild  Leek 
The  Emblem  of  Chicago. 


Bridgeport  and  Holstein  were  annexed  and  the  city  made  to 
embrace  24  square  miles,  divided  into  16  wards.  The  ordi- 
nance of  1869,  added  still  more  territory  to  Chicago,  which, 
shortly  before  the  fire,  contained  36  square  miles,  divided  into 
20  wards,  each  of  which  sent  two  aldermen  to  the  city  council. 

That  political  greatness  and  commercial  prosperity  do  not 
always  go  hand  in  hand  the  future  metropolis  was  to  learn  to 
its  sorrow.  Soon  after  Chicago's  organization  as  a  city,  a 
great  financial  panic  swept  over  the  land.  A  complete  crop 
failure,  in  consequence  of  an  extraordinary  drouth,  an  unsound 
bank-note  and  paper  money  system,  gross  mismanagement  of 
the  treasury,  cessation  of  work  on  public  improvements  and 
a  malarial  epidemic,  popularly  called  canal  cholera,  numbering 
its  victims  by  hundreds,  added  to  the  misery  of  the  people  of 
Illinois.  Besides  all  this,  Chicago  suffered  from  a  veritable 
craze  for  speculation.  All  branches  of  industry  were  affected, 
but  the  greatest  havoc  was  wrought  with  real  estate  values. 
The  price  of  property,  especially  of  such  as  lay  inside  the  city 
limits,  increased  with  fabulous  rapidity  for  a  time,  but  finally  a 
tremendous  reaction  set  in.  The  result  was  complete  business 
stagnation.  Trade  and  commerce  were  paralyzed,  goods  in  the 
warehouses  could  not  be  disposed  of  at  any  price,  laboring  men 
could  find  no  employment,  money  disappeared  from  circula- 
tion, immigration  ceased,  contracts  could  not  be  fulfilled — in 
short,  the  only  activity  to  be  seen  was  in  the  seventeen  law  offi- 
ces, where  a  feverish  energy  was  displayed.  Finally,  to  cap 
the  climax,  the  United  States  Government  removed  (1837)  the 
garrison  from  Fort  Dearborn  and  sent  it  further  west. 

It  was  not  until  the  middle  of  the  4o's  that  under  the  influ- 
ence of  active,  energetic  men,  the  effects  of  the  crisis  began  to 
wear  off  and  a  strong,  healthy  commercial  spirit  reasserted  itself. 

In  the  last  of  the  4o's  and  the  early  5o's,  especially  at  the 
time  of  the  German  revolution,  immigrants  in  large  numbers, 
including  thousands  of  Germans,  came  to  the  city;  trade  devel- 
oped rapidly  and  a  vigorous  intellectual  progress  was  noticeable. 

90 


CHICAGO  AS  A  COMMERCIAL  CENTER  BEFORE  THE 
FIRE— THE  INDUSTRIAL  DEVELOPMENT. 

The  construction  of  the  Illinois  and  Michigan  canal  made, 
or  rather  changed  Chicago  into  a  trade  center  for  the  region 
commercially  dependent  on  and  tributary  to  the  new.  water- 
way, which  stretched  96  miles,  from  Chicago  (Bridgeport)  : 
to  La  Salle,  on  the  Illinois  river.  The  influence  of  this 
water  connection,  however,  was  felt  only  gradually  by  the 
farmers  of  the  district,  for  the  work  on  the  channel  was 
frequently  interrupted  and  the  canal  fully  completed  only  in  j 
1848.  How  cheap  the  future  of  Chicago  was  held,  even  in 
the  first  of  the  '4o's,  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  many  of  the 
laborers,  who  had  been  employed  on  the  canal  at  50  cents  a 
day,  preferred  to  invest  their  savings  in  land  near  Dunkley's 
Grove,  Schaumburg  and  Elk  Grove,  settlements  about  twenty 
miles  from  town,  and  become  farmers  rather  than  buy  two 
or  three  acres  a  few  miles  out  on  State  street.  Meanwhile 
the  population  of  the  city,  except  during  the  crisis  of  1837 
and  the  immediately  subsequent  stagnation,  grew  steadily  but 
not  as  rapidly  as  in  the  beginning  of  the  5o's — the  era  of  the 
railroads.  In  1848  Chicago  had  but  20,023  inhabitants;  in 
1850,  25,269;  but  during  1852  and  1853  not  less  than  22,000 
new-comers  settled  in  the  city. 

It  was  the  railroads  that  caused  Chicago's  unparalleled 
development,  that  marvelous  outstripping  of  all  other  western 
cities,  which  has  ever  produced  and  ever  will  produce  the 
world  over,  such  wonder  and  amazement. 

The  pioneer  road  was  the  Galena  &  Chicago  Union 
Railway.  Its  charter  was  dated  1836,  a  time  when  in  all  the 
United  States  there  were  less  than  a  thousand  miles  of  railroad. 
Track  laying,  however,  was  not  commenced  until  1847,  and 

91 


as  the  construction  of  roads  was  still  an  infant  industry  but 
42  miles,  from  Chicago  to  Elgin,  were  built  within  the 
next  three  years.  Although  outside  capital  has  constructed 
most  of  Chicago's  roads,  local  enterprise  was  responsible  for 
the  "  Galena  Union."  Several  times  it  seemed  that  the 
project  would  have  to  be  abandoned,  at  first  the  line  failed  to 
pay  even  the  operating  expenses  and  public  sentiment  did  not 
favor  the  innovation.  Chicago's  few  capitalists  were  not 
daunted  however  and  pushed  the  road  on  to  Elgin.  As  soon 
as  that  point  was  reached  the  new  venture  proved  a  success 
and  the  earnings  made  handsome  returns  on  the  investment. 
From  Elgin  the  road  was  extended  to  Freeport,  where  connec- 
tions through  to  Galena  were  effected  with  the  Illinois 
Central.  Later  the  Galena  &  Chicago  Union  made  arrange- 
ments with  the  Central  to  run  its  trains  from  Chicago  through 
Galena  to  Dunleith,  a  point  on  the  Mississippi  opposite 
Dubuque.  This  was  the  Central's  own  terminal  and  gave 
Chicago  the  benefit  of  a  direct  railroad  connection  with  the 
Mississippi  river.  In  1864  the  Galena  Union  was  absorbed 
by  the  Chicago  &  Northwestern,  a  powerful  company,  con- 
trolling even  then  1176  miles  of  road  and  reaching  northward 
to  the  iron  region  of  the  upper  peninsula  of  Michigan  and 
westward  through  Illinois  and  Iowa  to  Omaha,  the  starting- 
point  of  the  first  great  trans-continental  road,  the  Union 
Pacific. 

Another  early  road  was  the  Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy, 
which  in  1852  had  but  15  miles  of  completed  track,  reaching 
from  Aurora  to  Junction.  In  1853,  45  miles,  from  Aurora  to 
Mendota,  were  constructed,  and  in  1863  the  road  for  the  first 
time  entered  Chicago  over  its  own  tracks  (on  Sixteenth  street) , 
having  previously  used  the  right  of  way  of  the  Galena 
Union. 

Another  road  to  reach  Omaha  and  later  to  compete  with 
the  Northwestern  and  Burlington  for  the  through  freight  of 
San  Francisco  and  New  York,  was  the  Chicago  &  Rock 

92 


Island,  now  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Pacific.  Its  costruction 
began  in  April,  1852,  and  by  February,  1854,  ^e  ^ne  ^ad 
reached  the  Mississippi  at  Rock  Island,  opposite  Davenport. 
The  Illinois  Central  was  the  first  road  to  receive,  through 
the  exertions  of  the  Illinois  senators  and  some  of  the  repre- 
sentatives, Stephen  A.  Douglas,  Gen.  Shields,  Sydney  Breese 
and  John  Wentworth,  a  land  grant  from  the  United  States. 
This  consisted  of  2,595,000  acres  of  land,  almost  all  of  it 
fertile,  lying  on  either  side  of  the  right  of  way.  In  the  course 
of  time  immense  sums  were  realized  by  the  road  from  this 
enormous  land  grant.  The  Illinois  Central  did  not  at  first 
enter  Chicago,  but  ran  from  Cairo  in  the  extreme  southern 
part  of  the  state  to  Dunleith  in  the  northwestern  part.  When 
it  built  its  branch  to  Chicago  it  was  given  a  right  of  way  into 
the  city  along  the  lake  shore.  By  the  building  of  the  North  Pier 
an  eddy  had  been  created  in  the  lake  which  began  to  eat  away 
the  shore  line  south  of  the  pier.  Various  attempts  were 
made  to  check  the  encroachments  of  the  waves,  but  although 
millions  of  dollars  worth  of  property  was  threatened  no 
adequate  defence  against  the  lake  currents  was  secured. 
The  city  referred  the  matter  to  the  state  and  the  state  in  turn 
referred  it  to  the  national  government.  Meanwhile  the 
eddying  waters  had  washed  their  way  clear  to  Michigan 
avenue,  and  immediate  action  was  imperative.  Just  then  the 
Illinois  Central  appeared  with  its  petition  for  a  right  of  way 
into  the  city.  It  was  given  and  accepted  the  privilege  of 
building  a  track  east  of  the  Lake  Front  park,  or  in  other 
words  over  the  lake  itself.  The  railway  company  straight- 
way built,  at  large  expense,  a  line  of  stone  cribs  some  five 
hundred  feet  beyond  the  shore  line  and  then  inside  the  cribs 
drove  piles  on  which  the  track  was  laid.  Of  course  the  cribs 
protected  the  shore  from  further  action  of  the  lake  and  at  the 
time  seemed  a  very  happy  solution  of  that  difficulty.  The 
right  of  way  too,  leading  as  it  did  into  the  heart  af  the  city, 
was  excellent,  and  both  road  and  city  were  for  a  time 

93 


satisfied.  Later,  however,  many  complications  and  expensive 
litigation  resulted  from  the  Central's  claim  to  all  the  "  made  " 
land  east  of  its  tracks.  Only  during  the  present  year  (1893) 
has  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  settled  the 
controversy  by  denying  the  claims  of  the  road  and  vesting 
the  ownership  of  the  made  lands  in  the  city  of  Chicago. 

Chicago's  importance  as  a  railroad  center  is  demonstrated 
/by  the  fact  that  the  great  trunk  lines,  connecting  the  Atlantic 
coast  with  the  west,  have  always  been  anxious  to  secure 
terminal  facilities  here,  while  other  cities,  such  as  St.  Louis, 
Cincinnati  and  Milwaukee,  have  had  to  incur  heavy  debts  by 
issuing  or  endorsing  bonds,  in  order  to  secure  railroad  con- 
nections. 

The  Galena  Union  in  1852,  shared  the  railroad  honors  of 
Chicago  with  the  Michigan  Central  and  Michigan  Southern 
roads,  which  in  that  year  pushed  through  from  the  east. 
Then,  after  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Pacific  and  Chicago, 
Burlington  &  Quincy  in  1854,  Game  tne  Chicago  &  Alton 
and  Chicago  &  Northwestern  in  1855,  the  Illinois  Central  and 
Pittsburgh,  Fort  Wayne  &  Chicago  in  1857,  and  the  Chicago 
&  Great  Eastern  in  1861.  The  completion  of  the  Grand 
Trunk  road  gave  Chicago  direct  railroad  communication  with 
Quebec,  Montreal  and  other  Canadian  points;  just  as  the 
Michigan  Southern  and  Michigan  Central  first  connected  it 
with  New  York  and  the  Atlantic  ports.  During  the  next 
decade  the  railroad  achievements  of  Chicago  consisted  mainly 
in  the  extension  of  its  trunk  lines  over  the  territory  lying  west 
and  northwest  of  Illinois.  The  completion  of  the  Union 
Pacific  in  1868,  brought  all  the  through  business  between  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts  under  the  control  of  Chicago,  gave 
to  commerce  with  Japan  and  China  a  new  and  lasting  impetus, 
and  made  Chicago  the  distributing  center  for  the  Asiatic 
import  trade  for  the  millions  of  consumers  of  the  Mississippi 
valley,  just  as  it  already  was,  the  distributing  point  for  Euro- 
pean merchandise. 

94 


Through  the  Chicago  &  Northwestern,  Chicago  was 
enabled  to  make  important  conquests  in  Wisconsin  and  the 
iron  and  copper  regions  of  the  upper  lakes.  Like  the  other 
pioneer  roads  of  Chicago,  the  "  Northwestern  "  has  shared 
the  prosperity  of  the  city,  and  is  to-day  one  of  the  largest 
railroad  systems  in  the  world.  It  first  appeared  in  1854,  under 
the  name  of  the  Illinois  &  Wisconsin  Railroad,  and  ran  from 
Chicago  to  Crystal  Lake,  hardly  40  miles  away.  At  that  time 
it  did  its  whole  passenger  business  in  one  coach  attached  to 
the  regular  daily  freight  train. 

All  told,  there  were  shortly  before  the  fire,  12  trunk  lines  and 
29  branch  roads  terminating  in  Chicago,  with  7019  miles  of  track. 
Each  succeeding  year  increased  the  mileage  of  the  roads,  and 
with  it  the  territory  tributary  to  Chicago.  Tables  giving  the 
earnings  of  the  roads  from  1849  to  the  fire,  afford  an  approx- 
imate idea  of  the  development  of  the  city  during  this  period. 
In  1849,  the  Galena  Union  stands  in  this  table  solitary  and 
alone.  It  was  operated  only  in  the  latter  half  of  that  year, 
and  its  gross  earnings  were  but  $27,418.  In  1854,  the  gross 
earnings  of  all  roads  terminating  in  Chicago  were  but  $6,3 30,- 
ooo;  in  1855,  $10,500,000;  in  1857,  $16,750,000;  in  1861, 
$17,750,000;  in  1863,  $27,500,000;  in  1864,  $40,300,000;  in 
1867,  $49,000,000,  and  in  1870,  over  $7o;ooo,ooo. 

Even  before  the  fire,  Chicago  was  the  greatest  railroad  cen- 
tre in  the  world. 

The  commerce  of  the  great  lakes  of  the  northwest,  far  from 
being  injured  was  first  built  up  and  strengthened  by  the  develop- 
ment of  the  railroads.  While  at  the  beginning  of  the  century, 
the  schooner  "Tracy"  made  but  one  trip  a  year,  between  Buf- 
falo and  Chicago,  in  order  to  provision  the  lonely  garrison  of 
Fort  Dearborn,  in  1840,  Chicago's  eastern  horizon  was  white 
with  the  sails  of  the  lake,  grain  and  lumber  fleet. 

The  schooner  "  Clarissa"  had  been  launched  here  in  1836, 
and  in  1840  the  first  side- wheeler,  the  "  George  W.  Dole," 
named  in  honor  of  its  builder,  appeared.  In  1842,  the  first 

95 


propeller,  the  "  Independence  "  left  the  first  wharf — Averill's. 

Accurate  reports  of  the  tonnage  of  the  vessels  clearing  the 
port  of  Chicago  before  the  5o's  are  lacking.  In  1854  the 
total  tonnage  of  the  vessels  entering  the  Chicago  harbor  was 
1,092,644;  in  1857,  1,453,417  and  in  1864,  2,172,866.  From 
that  date  a  new  system  of  registration  was  introduced, 
whereby  the  tonnage  of  each  vessel  was  registered  only  once 
a  year,  regardless  of  the  number  of  voyages  made.  Accord- 
ing to  this  new  system  the  Chicago  fleet  of  1323  vessels  had 
in  1865  a  tonnage  of  228,115;  in  1866,  251,077  and  in  1867, 
289,765.  More  than  half  of  these  vessels,  including  8  side- 
wheelers,  13  propellers,  33  tug  boats,  41  barges,  257 
schooners  and  227  canal  boats,  wintered  in  the  Chicago  river. 

The  development  of  the  commerce  of  the  great  lakes  may 
be  judged  from  the  fact  that  its  tonnage  considerably  exceeds 
that  of  the  whole  foreign  trade  of  the  United  States — and  of 
this  immense  commerce  Chicago  receives  the  lion's  share. 

In  1838  Walker  &  Co.  shipped  the  first  grain  from  Chicago, 
only  some  78  bushels,  but  before  the  fire  the  city  became  the 
world's  most  important  grain  market. 

The  growing  problem  of  handling  the  immense  masses  of 
grain  was  solved  by  the  invention  of  the  steam  elevator, 
which  cheaply  and  quickly  lifted  the  grain  from  the  cars  and 
canal  boats  by  which  it  had  been  brought  from  the  country, 
and  loaded  into  the  ships  waiting  to  bear  it  by  way  of  the 
great  lakes  to  Buffalo  and  the  Canadian  ports.  The  inventor 
of  the  elevator  was  Capt.  R.  C.  Bristol,  who  erected  the  first 
steam  elevator  in  1848.  In  January,  1855,  the  storage  capac- 
ity of  all  the  Chicago  elevators  amounted  to  only  750,000 
bushels.  In  1857  there  were  12  elevators,  holding  4,025,000 
bushels  and  ten  years  later,  in  1867,  the  capacity  of  the  seventeen 
elevators  then  in  use  exceeded  11,500,000  bushels.  These  ele- 
vators could  load  and  unload  a  million  bushels  of  grain  daily. 

Through  them  passed  the  grain  of  the  northwest  and  its 
value,  converted  in  the  east  into  manufactured  merchandise  of 


all  kinds,  was  returned  to  Chicago  for  distribution  through  the 
western  railroads  to  the  original  producers,  the  farmers. 
Thus  Chicago  became  the  great  distributing  center  of  the 
northwest,  then  containing  a  prosperous  population  of  over 
12,000,000  people.  The  "  hard  times "  of  1857-58  were  less 
felt  by  Chicago,  perhaps,  than  by  most  of  the  cities  of  the 
country.  In  the  United  States  and  Canada  there  were  5123 
bankruptcies  with  liabilities  of  $299,800,000.  In  New  York 
every  bank  but  one,  the  Chemical,  failed,  but  in  Chicago  several 
stood  firm.  The  Illinois  Central  and  Michigan  Southern  roads 
both  assigned  in  1857,  and  temporary  insolvency  in  all  busi- 
ness seemed  the  rule.  Things  grew  but  little  brighter  during 
the  next  two  years,  but  with  1861  came  a  change.  Its  cause, 
strangely  enough,  was  the  civil  war.  Far  from  impeding  the 
city's  growth  or  checking  the  volume  of  its  business  the  great 
struggle  caused  an  even  more  rapid  development  of  the  new 
western  metropolis.  Cincinnati,  St.  Louis  and  Louisville  lost 
their  southern  trade  on  account  of  the  war  and  a  great  deal 
of  capital  was  transferred  from  them  to  Chicago,  which  in 
consequence  soon  excelled  them  even  in  branches  of  industry 
in  which  they  had  formerly  taken  the  lead.  Thus,  for 
instance,  the  great  packing  industry  of  Cincinnati  (Porkopolis) 
was  transferred  to  Chicago  and  assumed  enormous  propor- 
tions. 

Just  as  necessity  had  produced  the  elevator  to  facilitate  the 
handling  of  grain,  it  later  brought  into  existence  the  Union 
Stock  Yards  for  the  handling  of  cattle.  These  yards  were 
first  opened  for  business  December  25,  1865,  and  covered  an 
area  of  345  acres.  The  pens  alone  covered  over  100  acres, 
and  hotels  and  other  buildings  45  acres  more.  The  capacity 
of  the  yards  when  opened  was  21,000  head  of  cattle,  755°°° 
hogs,  22,000  sheep,  200  horses,  a  total  of  118,200  animals. 
There  were  31  miles  of  drains,  7  of  streets  and  alleys,  3 
of  water  troughs  and  TO  of  feed  troughs.  There  were  2300 
gates,  1500  open  pens  and  800  covered  ones.  The  water  was 

i  97 


supplied  by  an  artesian  well,  noo  feet  deep.  A  "  belt"  line 
connected  the  yards  with  every  railroad  entering  the  city. 
Thirty  years  ago  it  seemed  that  these  yards  would  prove 
ample  for  all  times,  but  though  their  capacity  has  been 
repeatedly  increased,  the  stock  men  and  packers  are  still 
cramped  for  room.  The  advantages  of  the  stock  yards  sys- 
tem were  so  apparent  that  the  cattle  business  of  the  northwest 
was  soon  concentrated  in  Chicago,  though  other  western 
cities,  in  order  to  save  at  least  a  part  of  their  business,  now 
copied  Chicago's  stock  yards  just  as  they  had  before  copied  its 
elevators. 

The  cattle  and  grain  trade  in  Chicago  is  organized  to  such 
a  degree  of  perfection  and  smoothness  that  a  stranger,  neither 
in  the  streets  nor  elsewhere,  would  be  reminded  that  he  is  in 
the  world's  leading  cattle  and  grain  market.  He  sees  neither 
wagons  loaded  with  grain  nor  droves  of  cattle,  the  whole 
immense  business  being  done,  as  it  were,  behind  the  scenes. 
Another  of  Chicago's  business  enterprises  to  early  assume 
considerable  proportions  was  the  lumber  trade  and  the  allied 
manufacturing  industries  In  1871  the  value  of  all  imported 
merchandise  exceeded  $400,000,000.  Eighteen  banks,  with 
a  capital  of  $10,000,000  and  $17,000,000  deposits  were  nec- 
essary to  transact  this  enormous  commerce,  and  the  clearing 
house  business  amounted  $810,000,000. 

Just  as  the  city  grew  in  population  and  business,  so  the 
individual  inhabitants  grew  in  prosperity.  There  is  no  city  in 
the  world  containing  so  many  small  property  owners  in  com- 
parison with  the  whole  population  as  Chicago  —  no  city  in 
which  the  working  classes  are  so  independent. 

The  rapidity  with  which  the  city  had  been  raised  from  the 
swamps,  the  ingenuity  with  which  the  purest  water  (this  was 
before  the  fire)  was  introduced  into  every  house  and  the 
drainage  system,  using  Lake  Michigan  to  cleanse  that  great 
open  sewer,  the  Chicago  river,  justly  attracted  the  attention  of 
the  world  to  the  western  metropolis. 

98 


Prior  to  1840  the  city  had  been  poorly  supplied  with  drink- 
ing water,  which  was  either  obtained  from  wells  or  was 
brought  in  from  the  lake  in  large  barrels  and  sold  by  the  gal- 
lon. The  Chicago  City  Hydraulic  Company,  "incorporated  in 
1836  with  a  capital  of  $2,000,000,  had  for  its  purpose 
the  erection  of  public  water  works,  but  it  was  1840  before  its 
plant  was  put  in  operation. 


- 


PUMPING  STATION    OF    1854. 

The  pumping  station  was  situated  on  the  corner  of  Lake 
street  and  Michigan  avenue,  but  its  capacity  was  very  limited 
— the  steam  pump  used  having  but  25  horse  power.  In  1851, 
by  an  act  of  the  state  legislature,  a  board  of  three  water  com- 
missioners was  created  and  the  city  authorized  to  issue  bonds 
to  the  extent  of  $400,000  for  the  erection  of  new  water  works. 
The  building  was  situated  on  the  lake  shore  at  the  foot  of 


99 


Chicago  avenue,  and  in  1854  the  new  works  were  put  in 
operation.  The  water,  however,  was  taken  from  near  the 
shore,  and  was  soon  found  to  be  impure  at  times,  especially  when 
the  wind  blew  the  contents  of  the  Chicago  river  out  into  the  lake. 
As  a  consequence  it  was  decided  a  few  years  later  to  construct 
an  inlet  crib  two  miles  from  shore,  and  a  tunnel  to  connect  it 
with  the  pumping  station,  and  this  work,  commenced  in  May, 
1864,  was  completed  December  6,  1866.  Water  was  first  let 
into  the  new  tunnel  March  8, 1867,  and  for  a  long  time  Chicago 
boasted  of  a  water  supply  unequaled  in  purity,  price  and  plenty. 

The  early  5o's  were  cholera  years,  the  fatal  cases  in  1854 
being  no  fewer  than  1424  out  of  3834  total  deaths  in  the  city. 
From  1854,  however,  Chicago's  development  was  rapid.  In 
that  year  the  inhabitants  numbered  65,872  persons;  in  1857 
93,000;  in  1861,  120,000;  in  1867,  220,000;  in  1871,  334,270. 

In  1856  it  was  found  necessary,  in  order  to  secure  a  better 
drainage  system,  to  raise  the  streets  of  the  city.  On  the 
average  the  grade  was  raised  six  feet,  which  secured  sufficient 
"  drop  "  for  the  sewers  to  empty  by  gravitation  and  also  put 
them  far  enough  underground  to  be  protected  from  frost. 
Of  course  the  houses  had  to  be  raised  with  the  streets  and  the 
result  was  an  exceedingly  active,  if  not  pleasant,  operation. 
Even  the  largest  and  most  massive  buildings  had  to  be  raised. 
The  gigantic  undertaking  was  begun  on  the  South  Side,  but 
the  North  and  West  Sides  soon  followed  suit.  Steam  power 
was  used  to  a  considerable  extent  and  the  work  progressed 
rapidly.  So  cleverly  were  the  arrangements  made  and 
executed  that  the  use  of  the  buildings  and  the  business  in 
hotels  and  commercial  houses  were  not  interrupted  even 
during  the  time  the  contractors  were  actually  engaged  in 
raising  the  structures.  One  of  these  contractors  was  George 
M.  Pullman,  who,  in  this  manner,  laid  the  foundations  for  his 
future  fortune. 

A  characteristic  incident  took  place  under  the  administration 
of  Mayor  Wentworth,  along  in  the  5o's.  On  the  lake  shore9 

zoo 


between  Kinzie  and  Erie  streets,  there  had  grown  up,  in  the 
course  of  time,  a  settlement  of  which  Chicago  was  anything 
but  proud.  Numerous  tumble-down  wooden  shanties,  scat- 
tered helter-skelter  over  the  beach,  formed  an  ideal  nesting 
place  for  an  anarchistic  proletariat, — rogues,  whose  lives  were 
forfeit  to  the  gallows,  robbers  and  rascals  of  all  degrees,  in 
short,  the  lowest  kind  of  men  and  women,  who,  in  the  open 
prosecution  of  their  business,  had  become  a  public  nuisance. 
The  rough  and  ready  mayor  determined  to  rid  the  city  of  this 
precious  crowd  and  chose  a  novel  method  to  carry  out  his 
determination.  He  notified  the  shanty  dwellers,  that  on  a 
certain  day  their  whole  quarter  would  be  burned  down  and  he 
left  it  to  the  individuals  to  draw  their  own  conclusions.  The 
mayor  was  known  as  a  man  of  his  word  and  as  one  who  could 
not  be  trifled  with.  Consequently  very  many  took  his  hint 
and  quietly  decamped.  Promptly,  at  the  appointed  time, 
Mr.  Wentworth  appeared  with  a  full  detail  from  the  police 
and  fire  departments  and  caused  the  shanties  to  be  fired.  In 
a  few  moments  the  flames  had  completed  their  work  of  puri- 
fication; the  anarchistic  republic  was  resolved  into  its  primi- 
tive elements,  which  were  then,  as  quickly  as  possible, 
rendered  harmless  and  inoffensive. 

In  May,  1858,  the  first  horse-car  system  was  put  into  oper- 
ation; there  were  five  cars,  and  their  run  was  from  Lake 
street  to  Twelfth.  In  the  following  year  a  line  was  put  in 
operation  on  West  Madison  street,  and  in  1860  a  third  line 
began  running  on  North  Clark  street,  going  as  far  as 
Division. 

Up  to  this  time,  in  spite  of  the  prosperity  of  the  city  and 
the  well  developed  business  activity,  there  had  been  a  marked 
lack  of  public  art  institutions,  higher  educational  facilities  and 
substantial  places  of  recreation — theatres,  concert  halls  and  the 
like.  In  1855,  however,  the  Rush  Medical  College  was 
founded,  and  1859  saw  the  establishment  of  the  Chicago 
Medical  College.  Rice's  theatre  was  opened  in  1847,  but  ten 

101 

A 


years  elapsed  before  there  was  another  first-class  play-house. 
Then  McVicker's  first  welcomed  the  public,  and  with  "  Money  " 
for  its  attraction,  of  course  scored  a  great  hit. 

Aside  from  the  temporary  depreciation  of  paper  money,  trade 
and  commerce  thrived  in  Chicago  during  the  civil  war;  money 
was  abundant,  business  active,  wages  large — in  brief,  so  pros- 
perous were  the  times,  that  many  a  man  was  able  to  make  his 
fortune  then  and  there.  Aside  from  the  numerous  bridges 
and  viaducts  which  were  constructed  at  this  period,  the  tunnel 
under  the  river  at  Washington  street  was  completed  in  1869, 
and  the  one  at  La  Salle  street  two  years  later.  By  an  ordinance 
of  the  city  council,  passed  in  1864,  tne  Lincoln  Park  system 
was  established,  and  a  few  years  later  the  state  legislature 
enacted  a  statute  providing  for  the  whole  splendid  park  and 
boulevard  system. 

The  development  of  the  school  system  of  Chicago,  after 
1850,  was  in  keeping  with  the  general  progress  of  the  city. 
In  the  year  1871,  there  were  40  school  sites,  on  which  were 
erected  41  buildings,  and  1 1  other  buildings  stood  on  leased 
ground.  The  school  houses  and  equipments  represented  a  value 
of  $1,200,000.  There  were  572  teachers  whose  salaries 
amounted  to  $444,635. 

At  this  time  also  chere  were  192  parishes  or  separate  religious 
communities,  all  but  36  of  which  had  church  buildings.  Among 
them  were  25  Catholic  parishes  with  12  convents  and  numer- 
ous parochial  schools.  There  were  also  five  Jewish  syna- 
gogues. The  value  of  all  Chicago  church  property,  shortly 
before  the  fire,  was  $10,350,000. 

The  development  of  the  architecture  of  private  houses  kept 
even  pace  with  that  of  public  buildings.  In  1837  Chicago 
consisted  of  450  houses,  almost  all  of  which  were  frame.  In 
1871  the  city  numbered  60,000  buildings,  40,000  of  which 
were  of  wood.  In  1832  one  could  easily  count  the  brick 
buildings.  In  1854  the  only  marble  building  stood  on  the 
southwest  corner  of  Clark  and  Lake  streets,  opposite  the 

102 


two-story  brick  "  Saloon  Building,"  which  was  pointed  out  as  an 
edifice  of  considerable  pretensions.  In  time,  however,  men 
ceased  to  look  on  Chicago  as  merely  a  place  to  make  money 
and  then  desert,  and  began  to  regard  it  as  a  permanent  home 
to  whose  adornment  and  beautification  they  were  willing  to 
generously  contribute.  Soon  the  streets  were  covered  with 
fugitive  frame  houses,  which,  driven  out  of  the  town  proper, 
sought  a  resting  place  on  the  outskirts  of  the  city.  As  these 
outskirts  constantly  stretched  out  further  and  further  the  unfor- 
tunate houses  were  compelled  almost  yearly  to  begin  again  their 
peregrinations.  As  the  frame  structures  yielded  to  the  brick, 
so  in  turn  they  yielded  to  the  stone  and  iron  buildings. 
Palaces  took  the  place  of  two-story  buildings,  colossal  ware- 
houses crowded  out  more  modest  stores,  and  simple  dwellings 
gave  place  to  magnificent  and  •  architecturally  stylish  resi- 
dences. Michigan  and  Wabash  avenues  on  the  South  Side, 
Washington  street  on  the  West  Side  and  the  portion  of  the 
North  Side  lying  east  of  Dearborn  street  formed  the  favorite 
home-spots  for  the  wealthy.  Even  the  New  Yorkers,  with 
their  Fifth  avenue,  had  to  yield  the  palm  to  Wabash  avenue. 
The  value  of  the  new  buildings  erected  in  1864  was 
$4,700,000;  in  1865,  $6,950,000;  in  1866  over  $11,000,000 
and  in  1870  no  less  than  $20,000,000.  Owing  to  the  haste 
with  which  buildings  were  erected  before  the  fire  it  was  but 
natural  that  the  proper  building  laws  were  not  observed,  and 
that,  owing  to  a  lack  of  expert,  faithful  police  supervision, 
even  the  ordinary  rules  of  safety  were  grossly  violated.  Thus 
it  came  about  that  even  before  the  great  fire  Chicago,  with  its 
numerous  frame  houses  and  its  enormous  lumber  districts,  to 
say  nothing  of  its  location  on  an  unprotected  prairie,  was 
known  to  be  one  of  the  worst  fire  sufferers  in  the  Union.  In 
1863-64  there  were  186  fires,  doing  over  $355,560  worth  of 
damage,  and  in  1869-70  the  number  of  destructive  fires 
reached  600  and  inflicted  loss  to  the  amount  of  $871,000.  In 
1870-71  there  were  660  fires,  destroying  property  valued  at 

103 


During  the  nine  years  before  the  great  fire 
there  were  3697  destructive  fires  in  Chicago,  and  the  amount 
of  loss  sustained  was  $13,779.848,  of  which  $10,851,942 
was  covered  by  insurance.  Surely,  Chicago  had  warning 
cncu^fh. 


104 


Chicago's  Progress. 

Early  German  Settlers— The  Forty-Eighters— Social  and  Military  Growth  in  the  so's 
—  Beer  Riots  —  Americans  and  Germans  Unite  in  Opposing  Slavery  —  Early 
Breweries— Douglas  and  Know-nothingism — Underground  Railroad  —  Chicago's 
Part  in  the  War  of  the  Rebellion. 

The  part  played  by  Irishmen  and  Englishmen  in  the  devel- 
opment of  Chicago,  is  so  vital  and  intimate  as  to  need  no  treat- 
ment separate  from  the  story  of  the  city  itself.  Allied  so 
closely  to  the  Americans  by  ties  of  language  and  kinship  the 
Irish  and  English  settlers  of  Chicago  early  lost  their  individu- 
ality as  foreigners  and  became  Chicagoans,  quite  after  the 
manner  of  the  man  from  Massachusetts,  New  York  or  Ohio. 
Their  activity  cannot  be  easily  differentiated  from  that  of  the 
native-born  citizens.  The  Germans  on  the  other  hand  have 
not  lost  their  identity  as  such.  Had  their  manners  and  cus- 
toms more  nearly  approached  those  of  the  Americans,  the 
barrier  of  language  would  have  still  remained.  It  is  therefore 
easy  to  point  out  the  effect  of  their  influence  on  Chicago's 
development. 

Among  the  early  settlers  of  the  city,  there  were  relatively 
few  Germans,  and  these  few  were  not,  as  a  rule,  men  of  cul- 
ture or  education.  The  cream  of  early  German  immigration 
to  Illinois  went  to  the  southern  part  of  the  state.  With  the 
end  of  the  great  German  revolution  of  1848,  however,  came 
a  change.  The  revolutionists  were  defeated  and  forced  to  flee 
from  Germany.  Thousands  came  to  America  where  they 
were  soon  discovered  to  be  very  different  from  the  earlier 
German  immigrants.  The  revolutionists,  as  a  rule,  were  enthu- 
siasts, visionaries.  Erratic,  though  the  rank  and  file  undoubt- 
edly were,  many  of  them  were  also  liberal,  progressive  and 
well  educated.  Guided  by  sentiment,  their  mistakes  had  been 
those  of  youth. 

105 


They  embraced  all  classes  of  men;  thousands  were  simple 
artisans,  but  in  their  ranks  were  also  found  hundreds  of  pro- 
fessors, poets,  musicians,  artists,  editors  and  professional  men. 
As  a  rule,  these  latter  were  the  leaders  and  many  of  them 
proved  themselves  remarkably  clever  and  talented.  Although 
radically  progressive  as  a  class,  they  had  among  them  few 
competent  leaders,  no  mature  statesmen,  no  profound  philos- 
ophers. Those  who  afterwards  achieved  success  and  fame  in 
their  new  fatherland  were  mostly  inexperienced  young  men 
when  they  came,  and  owe  a  great  deal  of  what  they  are  or  have 
been  to  the  conditions  that  surrounded  them  in  the  new  world. 
They  were  able  men  but  their  ideas  were  impractical,  immature, 
or  at  best,  ahead  of  time.  When  they  left  Germany  they 
hoped  to  put  into  execution  in  America  the  ideas  which  had 
been  rejected  in  the  fatherland.  Eager,  enthusiastic,  impatient 
of  delay,  they  reached  their  new  home  only  to  find  here 
elements  similar  to  those  which  had  opposed  them  in  Ger- 
many— the  conservative  elements.  It  was  a  conflict  between  the 
old  German  settlers  and  the  new-comers,  between  the  "  moss- 
backs  "  and  the  "  green-horns,"  as  they  respectively  desig- 
nated each  other. 

The  Germans,  who  had  lived  for  some  time  in  the  United 
States  and  become  accustomed  to  American  ways  or  had 
formed  communities  in  which  they  lived  according  to  the 
customs  of  the  fatherland,  looked  with  disdain  on  the  new- 
comers, who,  without  waiting  to  learn  of  American  institu- 
tions, wished  immediately  to  reform  and  re-organize  the  whole 
country.  They  even  held  a  convention  for  this  purpose  in 
Wheeling.  W.  Va.,  and  one  enthusiast  actually  proposed  to 
solve  the  Teutonic  trouble  by  annexing  Germany  to  the 
United  States.  They  were  not,  however,  men  who  wished  to 
upset  things  merely  for  the  pleasure  of  it.  They  were  in  no 
wise  like  the  anarchists  of  later  days.  They  were  simply 
lovers  of  freedom,  and  later  became  strong  abolitionists.  Carl 
Schurz,  Col.  Fred  Hecker,  George  Schneider,  Lorenz 

1 06 


Brentano,  Hermann  Raster,  William  Rapp,  Emil  Preetorius, 
Caspar  Butz,  Emil  Dietzsch,  General  Sigel,  General  Oster- 
haus  and  Governor  Salomon,  were  the  most  prominent  of  the 
48'ers. 

The  conflict  between  the  old-timers  and  the  revolutionists 
was  carried  on  here  in  Chicago,  as  throughout  the  whole 
country.  The  former  believed  that  they  had  become  pretty 
well  informed  on  things  American,  were  firmly  convinced  of 
their  smartness  in  business  matters,  and  were  proud  of  the 
manner  in  which  they  butchered  the  English  language.  They 
ridiculed,  in  their  self-satisfied  way,  what  they  considered  the 
absurd  and  exaggerated  political  ideas  of  the  newly  arrived 
revolutionists,  whom  they  were  pleased  to  call  "  Latin  fel- 
lows," because  they  were  educated,  and  "  theorists,"  because 
they  had  ideas  of  their  own.  The  revolutionists  on  the  other 
hand,  looked  with  supreme^  contempt  on  the  "  moss-backs," 
whom  they  were  fond  of  alluding  to  as  "  German-American 
voting  cattle,"  because  of  the  obstinate  persistency  with  which 
they  clung  to  the  old  slavery  party.  They  did  not  even 
regard  the  "  moss-backs  "  as  being  worthy  of  living  in  a  free 
country,  and  scornfully  announced  that  the  latter  were  per- 
fectly happy  if  some  native  American  would  clap  them  on  the 
back  and  hail  them  as  "Jack"  or  "  Charley." 

Among  the  revolutionists  there  were  many  skilled  artisans, 
and  these  had  no  difficulty  in  finding  work.  But  the  profes- 
sional men,  the  journalists,  artists,  doctors,  lawyers  and 
professors,  had  plenty  of  spare  time  to  discover  the  evils  in 
America,  to  make  merry  over  the  Yankees  and  to  plan  a 
great  campaign  of  reformation.  These  gentlemen  were  for- 
ever lounging  around  saloons,  where,  at  all  hours,  they  carried 
on  almost  endless  debates  on  weighty  political  and  social 
questions  and,  while  thinking  of  the  old  home  from  which 
they  had  been  mercilessly  driven,  comforted  one  another  and 
waited  for  happier  days — in  most  cases,  for  the  hour  of 
return  to  the  fatherland.  All  day  long  one  could  find  in  the 

107 


various  saloons  the  best  of  fellowship  among  men  of  good 
breeding  and  good  wit.  They  drank  and  argued — criticised 
bitterly  and  praised  loudly. 

On  Sundays,  headed  by  a  brass  band,  they  marched  through 
the  streets  of  the  city,  delighting  in  parading  past  crowded 
churches,  and  finally  reaching  a  suburban  grove  where  things 
went  merrily.  Conventionalities  were  forgotten  and  the  beer 
flowed  in  streams.  In  short,  what  they  claimed  to  be  "  German 
customs  "  were  introduced  often  with  more  energy  than  dis- 
cretion, and  the  Yankees  were  taught  what  a  "  free  German  " 
was.  In  their  enthusiastic  moments  when  all  went  well,  the 
revelers  would  praise  their  meetings  with  the  proud  words: 
"  Grad'  wie  in  Deutschland,"  (just  as  in  Germany). 

Finally,  however,  the  48'ers  carried  thir»gs  a  little  too  far. 
While  calling  themselves  the  educated  part  of  the  community, 
they  often  forgot  entirely  to  take  any  account  of  other  people, 
the  result  of  which  was  that  a  bitter  hatred  of  foreigners 
sprang  into  existence.  The  know-nothing  spirit  made  its 
appearance  all  over  the  country,  and  it  was  directed  especially 
against  the  Germans.  At  this  crisis  there  happily  appeared 
the  German  newspapers  to  urge  their  readers  to  conduct 
themselves  differently  toward  those  Americans  who  differed 
from  them  in  opinion,  and  on  the  other  hand  to  demand  of  the 
Americans  that  they  afford  to  foreign  born  citizens  equal  rights 
with  themselves.  Most  of  the  German  papers  particularly  and 
emphatically  disapproved  of  slavery,  and  in  time  their  repeated 
demands  for  its  abolition  won  for  the  Germans  great  respect 
and  popularity  among  the  free-minded  American  element. 

In  1852  the  Chicago  Turnverein  was  formed,  and  its  mem- 
bers, sharing  the  bitter  anti-slavery  views  of  the  Illinois  Staats 
Zeitung,  which  had  been  founded  a  few  years  before,  formed 
the  first  German  phalanx  for  the  future  but  ever  nearing 
struggle  against  slavery. 

The  Turnverein  grew  and  prospered.  Its  miserable  hall  on 
Griswold  street  was  superseded  by  a  splendid  building,  and 

1 08 


from  a  band  of  enthusiasts  the  association  became  the  most 
influential  German  organization  of  the  city,  vitally  assisting 
in  the  political  and  intellectual  development  of  the  Germans  of 
Chicago. 

Following  the  Chicago  Turnverein  came  a  host  of  other 
clubs  and  societies.  There  were  singing,  shooting,  turning 
and  military  clubs.  The  number  grew  until  finally  almost 
every  German  state  was  represented  by  its  own  turning  or 
singing  society.  In  some  clubs  all  members  had  come  from 
one  German  city,  and  no  others  were  admitted.  The  man 
from  Hamburg  would  not  turn  or  sing  with  one  from  Frank- 
furt, and  so  on.  This  peculiarity,  although  typical  of  life  in 
the  fatherland,  worked  against  the  best  interests  of  the  Ger- 
mans in  Chicago.  They  became  divided,  and  failing  to  act 
as  a  unit,  did  not  exercise  an  influence  commensurate  with 
their  numbers.  The  same  want  of  harmony  is  still  noticed 
among  the  Germans  to-day,  and  works  against  them.  The 
general  effect  of  the  clubs  was,  of  course,  good,  and  developed 
not  only  the  social  but  political  life  of  the  Germans.  Nor  was 
it  the  Germans  alone  who  were  affected. 

After  the  singing  societies  had  introduced  German  songs  into 
the  city,  it  was  an  easy  matter  for  German  opera  to  follow, 
and  thus  great  impetus  was  given  to  the  musical  development 
of  Chicago. 

The  most  amusing  and  comical  feature  of  life  in  the  early 
5o's  is  indisputably  the  extraordinary  importance  with  which 
many,  otherwise  very  worthy  and  steady-going  citizens,  invested 
military  affairs.  Those  who  saw  in  the  new  order  of  things 
a  gentle,  peaceful  and  practical  means  of  advancing  in  busi- 
ness or  politics,  devoted  themselves  to  Mars  with  remarkable 
ardor,  but  it  was  the  gentlemanly  saloon  keeper  who  reaped 
the  greatest  profit.  After  the  fatigues  of  drilling  and  march- 
ing, the  parched  throats  of  the  warriors  had  to  be  moistened, 
and  a  saloon  was  always  found  to  be  the  best  and  most  suita- 
ble place  for  holding  an  important  council  of  war.  The  saloon 

log 


keepers  all  joined  companies.  At  certain  hours  their  white 
aprons  were  doffed  and  gorgeous  uniforms  donned,  and  then 
out  they  went  with  the  other  warriors  to  valiantly  storm  the 
saloon  of  some  comrade  —  for  the  fatherland  had  called,  not 
exactly  because  it  was  in  danger,  but  just  to  test  the  hearts  of 
its  sons  and  to  keep  the  swords  from  rusting  in  the  scabbards. 

On  Washington's  birthday,  Fourth  of  July,  at  funerals  and 
at  other  times  of  danger,  the  streets  were  thronged  with 
brave  cavalrymen  on  foot  and  infantry  officers  on  horseback. 
After  a  "treat  all  around  for  the  company"  the  lieutenant 
expected  that  at  the  next  council  of  war  he  would  be  made  a 
captain,  for,  though  he  had  captured  no  breastworks,  he  had 
won  the  hearts  of  his  men.  Should  a  major  buy  a  keg  of 
beer,  he  was  sure  of  a  marshal's  baton  at  the  first  favorable 
opportunity.  Consequently  the  militia  of  Chicago,  at  this 
time,  comprised  about  eight  generals,  seventeen  colonels,  three 
dozen  majors,  two  companies  of  captains,  a  battalion  of  lieuten- 
ants and  five  privates.  As  the  latter  were  for  the  most  part 
hard-working  men,  who  had  no  time  to  spare,  the  regiment, 
when  it  turned  out  on  the  occasion  of  a  funeral  or  some  event 
of  minor  importance,  consisted  very  frequently  of  nothing  but 
officers. 

At  the  local  election,  held  in  March,  1855,  Levy  D.  Boone, 
a  dyed-in-the-wool  "know-nothing,"  was  elected  mayor  of 
Chicago.  He  firmly  believed  that  it  was  his  duty  to  make  all 
"  foreigners "  fully  understand  that  America  was  to  be  gov- 
erned only  by  Americans.  A  saloon  license  of  $300  was 
imposed,  and  the  police  were  strictly  enjoined  to  close  all 
saloons  on  Sunday,  especially  if  they  were  conducted  by 
"foreigners."  If  conducted  by  "respectable  Americans"  the 
police  might  strain  a  point  and  ignore  the  open  doors.  Even 
before  Boone's  time  the  Sunday  and  temperance  crusade  was 
waged.  At  that  time  Americans  did  not  drink  beer  at  all; 
whiskey  was  their  favorite  tipple,  and  in  1854  tne  commonest 
grades  cost  but  15  cents  a  gallon. 


no 


On  Sundays  then,  the  Americans  could  wet  their  parched 
gullets,  but  the  drink  of  the  fatherland  was  denied  the  sons  of 
Germany.  Up  to  this  point  the  Germans  had  fully  complied 
with  the  law,  but  at  last  some  of  them  resolved  to  defy  it,  and 
run  their  saloons  without  the  necessary  license.  But  Mayor 
Boone  was  not  to  be  trifled  with;  he  had  the  offending  saloon 
keepers  summoned  before  him  and,  as  they  refused  to  pay  for 
their  licenses,  caused  them  to  be  imprisoned.  As  a  conse- 
quence, the  Germans  of  the  North  Side  organized  a  relief 
party,  armed  themselves  with  guns,  revolvers  and  pitch-forks? 
and  one  Saturday  marched  over  the  Clark  street  bridge,  up  to 
the  court  house  and  demanded  the  release  of  their  country- 
men, the  martyr  saloon  keepers.  A  crowd  of  several  thous- 
and Americans,  Germans  and  Irishmen  at  once  collected  and 
stood  eagerly  awaiting  further  developments.  The  entrance 
to  the  court  house  yard,  which  was  surrounded  by  a  tolerably 
high  iron  fence,  was  guarded  by  the  police,  and  the  great 
door  of  the  court  house  itself  was  closed.  Down  in  the  base- 
ment of  this  building  were  the  prisoners,  and  those  on  the 
outside  believed  they  could  hear  a  confused  murmur  of  voices 
coming  from  the  various  cells.  The  Germans  on  the  outside 
stood  there  for  some  moments,  undetermined  as  to  how  to 
proceed,  as  no  one  appeared  willing  to  lead  the  attack,  when 
suddenly  the  court  house  doors  were  flung  wide  open,  and  out 
upon  the  now  thoroughly  frightened  and  demoralized  mob 
rushed  about  fifty  special  policemen.  All  were  armed  with 
clubs,  and  every  man  made  good  use  of  his  weapon.  A  few 
shots  were  fired.  At  the  attack  of  the  police,  one  of  the 
rioters  threw  away  his  weapon  and  started  to  flee,  but  was 
overhauled  and  shot  down.  A  German  cigar  maker  shot  a 
policeman  in  the  arm.  After  quiet  'had  been  restored  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  court  house,  the  great  militia  general,  A.  K. 
Swift,  felt  in  duty  bound  to  call  upon  the  soldiers  to  rush 
to  arms  and  the  rescue.  They  responded  slowly,  only  about 
90  men  from  the  whole  regiment  appearing,  and  they 


in 


were  all  pale  with  fear.  In  spite  of  their  pallor  every  man  of 
them  was  ready,  with  a  lion's  courage,  to  plunge  into  the 
struggle  for  whisky  and  against  beer.  But,  happily,  the 
conflict  had  already  passed. 

Two  old  cannon,  which,  rumor  said,  had  in  1812  been 
abandoned  as  worthless  by  the  British  in  Detroit,  were  lugged 
out  from  the  city  arsenal  and  placed,  one  on  Clark  and  one  on 
La  Salle  street,  both  pointing  toward  the  North  Side.  The 
.  mayor  and  his  council  seemed  firmly  convinced  that  the  chief 
struggle  would  be  in  the  afternoon.  In  fact,  a  second  and  a 
well  planned  attack  had  been  arranged,  for  the  shameful  defeat 
of  the  forenoon  was  keenly  felt.  Men  gathered  in  all  the  prin- 
cipal streets,  prepared  for  a  bitter  struggle.  One  rioter  ran  to 
the  North  Market  hall  and  rang  the  alarm  bell.  Fortunately, 
however,  the  threatened  butchery  was  prevented  by  the  ready 
wit  of  an  Irish  bridge-tender,  who,  as  the  valiant  attacking 
column  approached  the  river  on  Clark  street,  swung  his  bridge 
wide  open  and  kept  the  doughty  warriors  off  the  South  Side. 
As  a  consequence  of  this  simple  artifice,  the  forces  of  the 
"  Beerocrats  "  stood  helpless  and  irresolute,  for  in  this  emer- 
gency their  brave  leaders  were  unable  to  display  their  knowl- 
edge of  the  arts  and  strategies  of  war. 

The  end  of  this  rather  grotesque  campaign  was  that  every- 
one began  to  laugh  at  the  peculiar,  not  to  say  ridiculous 
position  of  the  revolutionary  army  of  the  North  Side. 
Many  of  the  warriors  themselves  were  right  well  pleased 
at  being  prevented  from  spilling  blood,  for  in  their  rage 
they  might  have  dealt  too  severely  with  the  foeman.  And 
so  it  came  about,  that  within  half  an  hour  not  a  trace  of 
the  great  army  of  rebels  was  to  be  seen.  On  the  South  Side, 
meantime,  the  streets  had  been  garrisoned  and  were  kept  so 
until  Monday  morning,  the  militia  forces  increasing  in  numbers 
all  day  Sunday  in  the  same  measure  as  the  reports  of  the 
likelihood  of  more  trouble  grew  less  frequent  and  emphatic, 

In  order  to  avoid  further  ill-feeling,  the  trial  of  the  various 

112 


cases  growing  out  of  this  episode  known  in  the  history  of  the 
city  as  the  "  beer  riots,"  was  postponed  some  weeks,  and  then, 
in  order  that  immigration  might  not  be  driven  away  from  Chi- 
cago, the  prisoners  were  released  on  straw-bail  and  harmony 
was  once  more  restored. 

Occurrences  such  as  those  just  narrated,  increased  the 
feeling  between  the  native  and  German  born  citizens.  As 
far  as  business  was  concerned,  the  two  dealt  with  each  other, 
the  Americans  recognizing  the  Germans  not  only  as  excellent 
clerks  and  workmen,  but  also  as  profitable  customers,  but 
after  business  hours  they  separated  and  had  absolutely  nothing 
to  do  with  each  other.  The  Americans  had  no  desire  to 
know  more  intimately  the  "  Dutchmen,"  and  the  Germans 
in  their  turn  saw  no  necessity  of  making  advances  to  the 
'<  Yankees."  A  prominent  feature  of  the  German  is  his  easy 
adaptability  to  foreign  habits,  customs  and  methods  of  thought. 
If  (he  is  kindly  received  by  strangers,  he  adapts  himself  read- 
ily to  his  changed  conditions  of  life.  If,  however,  the  stranger 
seeks  by  force  to  forbid  him  his  native  customs  or  to  ridicule 
these  as  barbaric,  then  the  true  Teuton  rebels  and  clings  with 
a  remarkabk  persistency  to  the  habits  of  his  forefathers.  It 
was  rather  remarkable,  therefore,  that  the  German  revolution- 
ists advocated  in  the  German  press  that  their  countrymen 
should  forget  personal  grievances  and  unite  with  Americans 
for  the  suppression  of  slavery.  The  Americans  had  no  sym- 
pathy with  the  Germans.  They  did  not  understand  them,  and 
did  not  care  to.  But  the  German  revolutionists  passed  all  that, 
and  with  one  accord,  preached  over  and  over  again  from  the 
text,  "  Down  with  Slavery." 

"  We  Germans,  above  all  others,"  they  cried,  "  should 
oppose  as  one  man,  this  accursed  institution,  even  if  in  so  doing 
we  act  against  our  own  welfare,  and  are  forced  to  unite  with 
our  enemies,  the  know-nothings."  Of  course  such  precepts 
found  many  enemies  as  well  as  many  friends,  and  so  the  con- 
flict between  the  old  German  settlers,  most  of  whom  belonged 


to  the  democratic  or  pro-slavery  party,  and  the  newiy  arrived 
revolutionists  waxed  fiercer. 

New  England,  where  there  had  been  but  few  foreigners, 
was,  strangely  enough,  the  stronghold  of  the  know-nothings. 
There  too,  however,  were  found  the  great  opponents  of  slav- 
ery, and  so  the  two  extremes  met.  The  foreign-born  Ger- 
man in  the  west  opposed  slavery  as  strongly  and  as 
vigorously  as  did  the  Yankee  abolitionist  in  the  east.  For  a 
time  the  native  born  Chicagoans  paid  but  little  attention  to 
the  German  anti-slavery  movement.  They  did  not  know  the 
leaders  nor  their  motives,  and  it  was  not  until  George  Schneider, 
Caspar  Butz,  Ernst  Pruessing,  Hermann  Kreisman,  Ernst 
Schmidt,  Emil  Dietzsch  and  Fritz  Bauman  on  the  one  side, 
and  Isaac  N.  Arnold,  Norman  B.  Judd,  John  C.  Haynes, 
Thomas  B.  Bryan  and  "Long"  John  Wentworth  on  the  other, 
met  and  learned  to  know  each  other,  that  the  two  races  joined 
forces  for  a  common  end. 

While  now  the  Germans  and  Americans  were  coming  to  a 
better  understanding  on  political  questions,  there  quietly  and 
modestly  developed  a  branch  of  industry  destined  to  strongly 
affect  the  whole  social  life  of  the  American  people.  Up  to 
this  time,  as  already  said,  the  only  American  tipple  was 
whisky  and  it  had  ruined  mentally  and  physically  thousands 
upon  thousands.  But  all  this  was  to  be  changed,  for  the 
Americans  gradually  became  acquainted  with  the  excellence 
of  the  German  national  beverage,  and  beer  and  even  wine 
began  to  share,  if  not  usurp  the  place  in  the  American  heart 
so  long  held  by  whisky. 

In  spite  of  almost  a  thousand  years  of  struggling  and  suffer- 
ing, Germans  have  retained  a  happy  and  contented  disposition. 
On  the  soil  of  their  fatherland  the  terrible  decision  of  the 
sword  has  settled  many  a  question  pregnant  with  the  fate  of 
all  mankind.  The  German  may  be  always  dreaming,  but  his 
dreams  spring  from  a  joyous  and  idealistic  nature,  and  though 
oftimes  interrupted  by  the  loud  tocsin  summoning  the  dreamer 

114 


to  a  combat  for  existence,  still  in  the  midst  of  the  struggle, 
come  the  pleasant  clink  of  glasses  and  tender  love-songs,  like 
saving  genii  in  the  moment  of  anxiety.  And  so,  inspired  by 
the  pretty  and  natural  desire  to  be  able  here,  across  the  sea, 
in  his  foster  fatherland,  in  the  home  of  freedom,  to  live 
according  to  his  old,  honorable  and  long-inherited  cus- 
toms he  planted  on  the  sunny  hills  of  Ohio  the  vine  brought 
from  the  Rhineland,  trained  the  fragrant  hops,  and  on 
the  black,  virgin  soil  of  the  prairies  he  sowed  the  vigorous 
barley. 

It  was  to  supply  an  already  keenly  felt  demand  that  in  the 
5o's  even,  men  all  over  the  west  turned  their  attention  to  wine 
growing  and  beer  brewing.  In  Chicago  a  large  and  ever 
increasing  industry  was  founded,  and  the  breweries  later 
yielded  almost  untold  riches. 

Mathias  Best  (father  of  the  well-known  Chicagoan,  Henry 
Best)  was  Chicago's  first  brewer.  He  came  here  from 
Bavaria  in  1841,  but  found  so  few  Germans  in  the  city 
that  he  did  not  think  it  worth  while  to  start  a  brewery,  and 
turned  his  attention  to  the  manufacture  of  vinegar.  In  1844. 
he  began  beer  brewing  on  a  small  scale,  serving  his  customers 
in  little  wooden  casks,  which  he  made  himself,  and  carried 
around  on  his  back.  About  1850  he  built  a  small  brewery, 
with  a  summer  garden  attachment.  Later  he  leased  his 
establishment  to  Conrad  Seipp,  and  when  Seipp  started  a 
brewery  of  his  own,  he  leased  it  to  Downer  &  Bemis.  When 
they  in*  turn  built  their  own  brewery  some  years  later, 
Chicago's  original  brew-house  stood  unused  until  1871,  when 
it  was  destroyed  in  the  great  fire. 

In  1849,  m  a  brewery  on  the  corner  of  State  and  Randolph 
streets,  where  the  Central  Music  Hall  now  stands,  Adolph  P. 
Mueller  brewed  the  first  lager  beer  for  Chicagoans.  Among 
the  later  brewers  were  John  A.  Huck  and  his  son  Louis, 
Peter  Schoenhofen,  A.  Gottfried,  Busch  &  Brand  and  Bar- 
tholomae  &  Leicht. 

"5 


German  influence  on  Chicago  business,  society  and  art  was 
early  felt,  but  it  was  1857  before  much  attention  was  paid  the 
Germans  by  the  politicians.  At  that  time  it  was  not  deemed 
advisable,  on  account  of  German  opposition,  to  again  run  the 
know-nothing  mayor,  Thomas  Dyer,  and  at  the  suggestion 
of  George  Schneider,  of  the  Illinois  Staats  Zeitung,  "  Long  " 
John  Wentworth  received  the  nomination.  Wentworth  was 
triumphantly  elected,  and  thereafter  the  Germans  paid  more 
attention  to  real  politics  and  less  to  visionary  plans  for  sweep- 
ing reforms.  Under  the  leadership  of  Schneider  and  others 
they  continued  their  opposition  to  slavery,  and  formed  the 
nucleus  of  the  republican  party  in  Chicago. 

January  29,  1854,  George  Schneider  called  a  meeting  to 
oppose  the  Nebraska  bill  and  the  extension  of  slavery.  At 
this  gathering,  probably  the  first  public  assembly  held  in  the 
United  States  for  this  specific  purpose,  both  Germans  and 
Americans  were  present. 

Stephen  A.  Douglas,  then  senator  from  Illinois,  and  from 
1847  a  resident  of  Chicago,  was  the  great  opponent  of  know- 
nothingism,  and  marshaled  the  democrats  against  the  hosts 
of  intolerance,  fanaticism  and  political  and  religious  bigotry. 
But  the  majority  of  the  Germans  stood  firm  against  slavery, 
and  as  Douglas  at  first  wished  to  compromise  on  the  question, 
they  violently  opposed  him. 

On  the  evening  of  September  i,  1854,  Douglas  called  a 
meeting  at  North  Market  Hall,  where  he  intended  to  explain 
his  action  in  support  of  the  Kansas-Nebraska  bill,  but  a  howl- 
ing mob  met  him  and  prevented  the  ''little  giant"  from  being 
heard.  During  the  afternoon  flags  on  all  vessels  and  build- 
ings owned  by  abolitionists  had  been  hung  at  half-mast,  and 
at  dusk  the  church  bells  were  tolled  as  if  for  an  impending 
calamity.  Most  of  those  in  the  hall  were  bitter  know-nothings 
and  abolitionists,  and  many  had  come  heavily  armed  in  antici- 
pation of  bloodshed.  Finally,  after  facing  the  mob  for  two 
hours,  Douglas  yielded  to  the  inevitable  and  returned  to  his 

116 


hotel,  followed  by  a  shouting,   cursing,    threatening  crowd. 

From  that  day  Chicago  never  ceased  to  be  on  the  extreme 
verge  of  anti-slavery  excitment,  and  became  the  center  of  the 
western  movement  which  made  Kansas  a  free  state. 

The  first  general  anti-slavery  meeting  was  held  in  Chicago 
in  the  "Saloon  Building"  in  1838,  and  in  January,  1840,  the 
Chicago  Anti-Slavery  Society  held  its  first  public  meeting. 
Chicago  early  became  one  of  the  principal  points  on  the 
"underground  railroad,"  which  was  the  name  given  to  a 
system  of  co-operation  of  certain  active  abolitionists  to  secretly 
assist  fugitive  slaves  to  escape  into  Canada.  In  1839  gener- 
ous and  zealous  Zebina  Eastman  sent  the  first  passenger  on 
the  "underground  railroad"  through  Chicago,  and  Captain 
Blake,  of  the  steamer  Illinois,  took  him  to  Canada. 

In  1860  Chicago  was  selected  as  the  place  for  holding  the 
republican  national  convention,  and  the  hearty  support  of 
Chicago  abolitionists  secured  the  nomination  of  Abraham 
Lincoln.  In  the  fall  the  election  passed  off  quietly  enough, 
Lincoln  being  chosen  president.  He  was  inaugurated  in 
March,  1861,  and  in  less  than  six  weeks  the  roar  and  crash 
of  the  guns  bombarding  Fort  Sumter  ushered  in  the  war  of 
the  rebellion.  April  18  the  Union  defense  fund  was  started 
in  Chicago,  and  three  days  later,  at  the  call  of  Governor  Yates, 
Gen.  R.  K.  Swift  started  for  Cairo,  which  important  post  he 
occupied  with  a  force  of  595  men  and  four  six-pounders,  his 
command  consisting  of  Companies  A  and  B,  Ellsworth's 
Chicago  Zouaves,  the  Chicago  Light  Infantry,  Turner  Union 
Cadets,  Lincoln  Rifles  and  the  Chicago  Light  Artillery. 
When  the  President  called  for  75,000  volunteers,  Chicago  at 
once  raised  two  companies,  which  were  assigned  to  the 
Twelfth  Illinois  Volunteer  Infantry.  The  Nineteenth  Illinois 
also  contained  several  Chicago  companies.  Indeed,  so  rapid 
was  the  enrollment  of  Chicago  volunteers  that  Governor 
Yates,  owing  to  the  refusal  of  the  Secretary  of  War  to 
authorize  him  to  accept  more  troops  than  the  state's  pro-rata 

117 


proportion  of  the  whole  number  of  volunteers,  was  unable  to 
put  many  of  the  early  companies  into  commission,  and  several 
Chicago  companies  left  the  state  and  enlisted  elsewhere, 
principally  in  Missouri  and  Kansas.  Nearly  every  member  of 
Ellsworth's  famous  zouaves  held  commission  during  the  war, 
but  they  were  scattered  through  the  regiments  of  various 
states,  Ellsworth  himself  commanding  the  Eleventh  New  York 
Volunteers  (Fire  Zouaves). 

The  Twenty-third  Illinois  was  the  famous  "  Irish  Brigade," 
organized  by  Col.  James  A.  Mulligan,  and  consisted  of  Irish- 
Americans  living  in  Chicago  and  neighboring  towns.  It  was 
accepted  by  the  Federal  government  as  an  independent  Illinois 
regiment,  being  mustered  into  service  June  15,  1861.  After 
three  years  of  service,  marked  by  conspicuous  bravery  and 
ability,  Colonel  Mulligan  was  killed  at  Kernstown,  July,  1864. 

The  Twenty-fourth  Illinois,  or  the  "  Hecker-Jaeger  regi- 
ment," composed  exclusively  of  Germans,  was  mustered  in 
July  8,  under  the  colonelcy  of  Frederick  Hecker,  who  12  years 
before  had  fought  for  liberty  in  the  fatherland.  Afterwards 
Colonel  Hecker  resigned,  and  organized  the  Eighty-second  reg- 
iment, and  was  succeeded  in  the  Twenty-fourth  by  Geza 
Mihalotzy,  a  trained  Hungarian  officer,  who  died  March, 
1864,  fr°m  wounds  received  in  the  service  of  his  foster  father- 
land. The  Twenty-fourth  was  largely  composed  of  men  who 
had  served  in  the  German  and  Austrian  armies,  and  was  made 
up  of  excellent  fighting  material. 

The  Thirty-seventh,  "  the  Fremont  Rifle  regiment,"  was 
organized  in  the  summer  of  1861,  and  three  of  its  companies 
were  recruited  in  Chicago.  Few  regiments  saw  more  service 
than  the  Thirty-seventh  and  few  reaped  more  honors.  Gen.  John 
C.  Black  entered  the  army  as  lieutenant-colonel  of  this  regiment. 

The  Thirty-ninth,  the  "  Yates  Phalanx, "  was  distinctively 
a  Chicago  regiment,  as  were  also  the  Forty-second,  Fifty-first, 
Fifty-seventh,  Fifty-eighth,  "the  McClelland  brigade,"  and 
the  Sixty-fifth,  "the  Scotch  regiment." 

118 


The  Seventy-second  was  the  first,  the  Eighty-eighth  the 
second,  and  the  One  hundred  and  thirteenth  the  third  Board 
of  Trade  regiment. 

The  Eighty-second,  the  second  Hecker  regiment,  was  like 
the  Twenty-fourth,  largely  German.  Its  losses  exceed  those 
of  almost  any  other  regiment  in  the  history  of  the  war.  The 
Eighty-ninth  was  the  "  Railroad "  regiment,  the  Ninetieth, 
the  "  Irish  Legion,"  the  One  Hundred  and  Twenty-seventh, 
mustered  in  September  6,  1862,  was  the  last  of  the  list  of  the 
gallant  Chicago  regiments  during  the  rebellion. 

Besides  these  infantry  troops,  Chicago  furnished  many  re- 
cruits to  the  Fourth,  Eighth,  Ninth,  Twelfth,  Thirteeth 
cavalry  regiments  and  to  various  artillery  batteries.  From 
first  to  last  Chicago  rendered  the  federal  government  every 
possible  assistance  in  carrying  on  the  war;  nor  was  all  the 
loyalty  displayed  by  the  soldiers  on  the  field,  trained  nurses, 
Sisters  of  Mercy  and  surgeons,  all  more  or  less  assisted  by 
the  city  proceeded  to  the  scenes  of  battle  and  cared  for  the 
wounded  and  sick  left  in  camp  and  hospital.  Money  was 
liberally  subscribed  and  great  work  was  done  by  the  Board  of 
Trade,  Mercantile  Association,  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  Young  Men's 
Association  and  various  other  societies. 

In  September,  1861,  Camp  Douglas  was  established  on  the 
South  Side,  as  a  rendezvous  for  all  volunteers,  but  it  was  later 
used  as  a  northern  prison,  over  12,000  rebels  being  confined 
there  at  one  time.  In  1864  Jacob  Thompson,  formerly  a 
member  of  Buchanan's  cabinet,  formed  a  plot  to  free  all  these 
prisoners  of  war,  and  with  them  as  a  nucleus,  form  a  union  of 
all  southern  sympathizers  in  the  north,  and  so  aid  the  rebels 
by  a  northern  insurrection.  Enough  of  the  plot,  however, 
was  discovered  to  prevent  any  serious  developments. 

In  November,  1860,  befell  the  greatest  single  fatality  Chi- 
cago ever  suffered:  the  wreck  of  the  Lady  Elgin.  The  boat 
was  one  of  the  finest  of  lake  steamers,  and  on  Friday,  Novem- 
ber 7,  started  from  Chicago  for  Milwaukee  with  393  persons 

119 


on  board,  most  of  them  being  excursionists  returning  home  to 
Milwaukee.  In  the  night  the  Lady  Eigin  was  run  down  by 
a  lumber  schooner  and  sank  within  thirty  minutes,  carrying 
down  with  her  297  human  beings.  This  was  the  inauspicious 
beginning  of  a  stormy  and  tumultuous  decade,  but  the  end  of 
the  6o's  was  peaceful  enough;  the  war  was  well  over,  new 
industries  had  sprung  up  and  times  were  prosperous. 


"But  with  mighty  destiny 
Union  sure,  there  ne'er  can  be. 
Woe  advances  rapidly." 


1 2O 


The  Chicago  Fire. 

October  jth,  8th  and  pth,  1871. 

For  fourteen  weeks  scarcely  a  drop  of  rain  had  fallen  on 
the  strong  young  city  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Michigan.  Of 
its  60,000  buildings,  40,000  were  frame,  and  owing  to  the  long 
drouth,  both  the  buildings  and  the  pine  sidewalks  were  like 
tinder.  Broken  by  neither  hills  nor  forests,  the  prevailing  west 
and  southwest  winds  swept  over  the  prairies  and  burst  with 
full  force  upon  the  city. 

The  days  were  growing  shorter,  and  in  the  early  falling 
evenings  the  horizon  could  be  seen  red-tinted  with  its  reflec- 
tion of  distant  prairie  fires.  In  the  city  itself,  fires  had  been 
numerous  without  exciting  more  than  passing  comment.  In 
America  fires  concern  only  the  firemen  and  insurance  compan- 
ies. The  335,000  Chicagoans  were  all  busy.  The  end  of 
navigation  was  near,  and  grain  traffic  heavy.  Fall  trade — the 
distribution  of  the  world's  merchandise  to  11,000,000  neigh- 
boring people — absorbed  the  attention  of  business  men.  Sud- 
denly into  the  feverish  activity,  the  high  nervous  tension  of  a 
fully  developed  commercial  life,  entered  an  enormous  fatality, 
and  the  heart  of  the  young  city  stood  still.  Quiet  reigned 
over  the  vast  field  of  ruins,  and  a  hundred  thousand  people, 
who,  care-free  on  the  evening  of  October  8th,  laughed  and 
sang  in  happy  homes,  found  themselves  on  the  gloomy  morn- 
ing of  the  pth  without  house  or  goods — shelterless  and  home- 
less on  the  bleak  prairie,  struggling  with  relentless  elements, 
while  three  hundred  of  their  fellows,  dumb  in  death,  bore 
ghastly  evidence  to  the  terrors  of  the  night  of  fire. 

Nor  was  the  great  tragedy  which  laid  Chicago  in  ashes  with- 
out a  fit  prelude.  On  the  evening  of  the  7th  of  October,  there 
burned  in  a  few  hours  three  hundred  houses  on  the  West  Side, 

121 


2500  people  were  made  homeless;  3000  were  thrown  out  of 
employment,  and  property  worth  $750,000,  and  but  little  more 
than  half  insured,  was  destroyed.  Twenty-four  hours  later 
and  the  homeless  were  numbered  by  tens  of  thousands,  the 
losses  computed  by  hundreds  of  millions,  and  the  insurance  an 
unknown  quantity.  The  fire  October  7th,  \vas  the  largest  Chi- 
cago had  ever  known,  but  the  immense  conflagration  that  fol- 
lowed on  the  8th  made  it  seem  insignificant.  Little  is  heard 
about  the  great  battle  of  Ligny,  because  it  was  followed 
immediately  by  the  greater  Waterloo. 

But  the  story  of  the  first  fire  is  important  in  explaining  the 
one  that  followed.  South  of  Adams  street  and  immediately 
west  of  the  south  branch  of  the  Chicago  river  were  numerous 
lumber  and  coal  yards,  planing  mills  and  factories  full  of 
highly  inflammable  material,  and  here,  at  n  o'clock  Satur- 
day evening,  October  7th,  fire  was  discovered  in  the  planing 
mill  of  Lull  &  Holmes  (on  Canal  street,  a  block  from  the 
river).  The  authorities  never  learned  how  it  started,  but  the 
flames  had  made  great  headway  before  the  fire  department 
reached  the  scene.  A  strong  wind  was  blowing  directly  from 
the  south,  and  the  fire  spread  northward  with  the  greatest 
rapidity.  Later  the  wind  veered  to  the  southwest,  and  the 
flames  leaped  across  Canal  street  and  worked  toward  the 
river.  Within  two  hours  they  had  swept  over  an  area  of 
more  than  twenty  acres,  completely  devastating  the  whole 
district  bounded  by  Adams  street  on  the  north,  Clinton  on  the 
west,  Van  Buren  on  the  south  and  the  river  on  the  east. 
Except  for  the  National  elevator,  which,  though  on  fire 
several  times,  finally  escaped  destruction,  one  saw  nothing  but 
an  empty  field  before  him — no  trace  of  ruins  or  debris,  a 
peculiarity  even  more  noticeable  in  the  fire  of  the  following 
day.  The  rapidity  of  the  conflagration  even  at  the  beginning 
was  so  great  that  all  engines  had  to  be  called  into  play,  and  it 
was  only  by  the  greatest  effort  that  the  fire  was  checked  at 
the  corner  of  Adams  and  Clinton  streets,  and  its  progress 

122 


northward  stopped.  Had  this  not  been  done  the  flames  would 
have  attained  sufficient  force  to  have  jumped  the  river — there 
150  feet  wide,  and  the  terrible  tragedy  of  October  8th  would 
have  been  earlier  enacted.  At  one  time  the  woodwork  of  the 
viaduct  on  Adams  street  caught  fire  and  from  it  the  flames 
spread  northward,  threatening  the  many  railroad  cars  crowded 
together  there  and  the  passenger  and  freight  depots  of  the 
Pittsburgh,  Ft.  Wayne  &  Chicago  and  Chicago  &  Alton 
roads.  The  danger,  however,  was  happily  averted  by 
tearing  down  one  of  the  big  freight  sheds. 

The  wonderful  spectacle  had  attracted  hundreds  of  people 
to  the  bridges  spanning  the  river,  from  which  one  could  look 
down  as  from  a  hill  upon  the  awful  scene.  Little  did  the 
spectators  dream  that  only  twenty-four  hours  later  they  would 
themselves  be  dragged  to  the  stage  and  employed  as  actors 
in  one  of  the  greatest  tragedies  of  the  century.  Still  there 
was  no  lack  of  uncanny  premonition.  The  roof  of  a  shed 
from  which  hundreds  of  people  looked  down  into  the  fierce 
sea  of  fire,  suddenly  gave  way  and  all  were  precipitated  to  the 
ground  and  several  wounded.  Many  of  the  high  sidewalks  on 
Clinton  street  gave  way  under  the  pressure  of  surging  masses 
and  caused  serious  accidents.  A  number  of  men  in  Sheriff's 
lumber  yard  and  in  adjacent  coal  yards,  were  so  cornered 
by  the  fire,  that  seizing  whatever  pieces  of  lumber 
they  could  find,  they  leaped  into  the  river,  preferring 
the  water  and  its  doubtful  dangers  to  the  awful 
certainty  of  the  flames.  One  human  victim  fell  a  prey 
to  this  earlier  fire,  for  the  next  day  the  charred  body  of  a 
woman  was  found  on  Clinton  street  on  the  spot  where  her 
home  had  stood.  After  a  battle  of  five  hours  the  firemen 
succeeded  in  curbing  the  terrible  element.  Exhausted,  they 
retired  to  their  berths  above  the  steamers  with  no  suspicion  of 
the  awful  defeat  to  follow  this  Pyrrhus  victory. 

The  morning  of  Sunday,  October  8th,  gave  no  cause  for 
apprehension  of  the  terrors  of  the  night  to  come.  Bright  and 

124 


beautiful  shone  the  October  sun,  and  only  its  clear  light 
bringing  the  barren  burnt  area  into  bold  relief,  made  a  weird 
impression  upon  the  beholder.  The  supremacy  of  the  ele- 
ments over  human  power  was  boldly  shown.  In  vigorous 
wise  fate  had  already  knocked  on  the  door,  and  thousands 
and  thousands  of  spectators,  who,  on  the  bright  Sunday  morn- 
ing gathered  from  all  parts  of  the  city  to  witness  the  scene  of 
devastation,  might  have  heard  the  knocking  on  their  own 
doors.  But  the  pleasure  resorts  in  the  afternoon  were 
overcrowded,  Lincoln  Park  was  full  of  pedestrians  and  car- 
riages. No  one  dreamed  that  he  was  enjoying  the  last  day 
a  doomed  city. 

THE   CATASTROPHE  OF  OCTOBER  8th  AND  pth. 

Closely  following  the  powerful  prelude  of  October  7th,  was 
the  gigantic  tragedy  which  forms  the  topic  of  this  description. 
It  calls  to  mind  the  old  Greek  tragedies,  in  which  the  chorus 
gives  expression,  not  only  to  public  opinion  about  the 
acts  of  the  leading  personages,  but  also  on  especially  impor- 
tant occasions,  takes  part  in  the  action  itself;  it  differs  only 
in  this,  that  finally  all  parts  of  this  divided  chorus  became 
principal  actors — relentless  fate  involving  first  one  division, 
then  another,  with  steadily  increasing  effect.  The  three  local- 
ities in  which  the  action  took  place  form  the  most  natural  lines 
on  which  to  divide  the  tragedy  into  acts,  the  more  so  as  the 
climaxes  of  feeling  on  the  part  of  the  people  correspond  to 
such  division.  As  long  as  the  fire  was  confined  to  the  West 
Side,  the  South  Siders,  who  viewed  it  from  the  bridges  and 
eastern  shore  of  the  river,  felt  more  pity  for  the  repeated 
misfortunes  of  their  neighbors  than  fear  for  themselves.  The 
second  act  began  when,  about  midnight,  the  fire  leaped  across 
the  river  and  attacked  its  prey  on  the  other  side.  Now  the 
inhabitants  of  the  South  Side  are  hurled  with  frightful  rapidity 

125 


into  the  whirlpool  of  action.  The  battle  between  fate  and 
heroes,  between  the  destroying  element  and  the  saving  fire 
department,  fighting  step  by  step  the  on-marching  flames, 
reaches  its  climax.  Buildings  on  Harrison  street  and 
Wabash  avenue  are  blown  up  by  gunpowder,  and  the  fire  is 
prevented  from  spreading  further  south,  and  by  reason  of  this 
relative  triumph  of  human  ingenuity  over  the  unchained 
element,  the  hopes  of  the  sore-tried  victims  are  for  a  time 
revived.  The  third  act,  the  almost  complete  destruction  of 
the  North  Side,  shares  with  the  other  two  the  characteristic 
feature  that  the  passive  spectators  are  thrown  with  fearful 
velocity  into  the  midst  of  the  action — into  as  wild  a  flight  as 
the  world  has  ever  witnessed.  The  army  is  routed — help 
himself  who  can !  The  retreat  across  the  bridges  on  Chicago 
avenue,  Division  street  and  North  avenue,  where  men,  women 
and  children,  horses  and  wagons  are  precipitated  in  almost 
inextricable  confusion,  into  the  unburnt  part  of  the  Northwest 
Side,  recalls  the  horrors  of  the  celebrated  crossing  of  the 
Beresina. 

Even  the  character  of  the  architecture  varied  essentially  in 
the  three  divisions  of  the  city,  the  flames  in  the  first  act  meet- 
ing only  frame  buildings.  Indeed,  it  has  been  argued  that  the 
rapid  development  of  the  conflagration  is  due  almost  entirely 
to  this  fact,  and  it  may  be  possible  that  if  at  first  the  fire  had 
had  to  deal  with  less  inflammable  material,  its  spread  might 
have  been  slower  and  its  resistance  by  the  firemen  success- 
fully accomplished.  But  the  complete  devastation  of  the  busi- 
ness center  proved  that  a  fire  of  such  dimensions  as  that  which 
finally  jumped  the  river  could  not  be  resisted  by  even  the 
most  fire-proof  buildings.  The  business  center  contained 
about  one  and  a  half  square  miles,  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  main  river,  on  the  west  by  the  south  branch,  on  the  east 
by  Lake  Michigan  and  on  the  south  by  Harrison  street,  and 
its  buildings  were  chiefly  of  stone,  iron  and  brick. ,  To  be 
sure,  there  were  vulnerable  spots — the  wooden  window  frames, 

126 


which  the  fire  reached  in  spite  of  the  iron  shutters,  the  wooden 
cornices,  and  last,  but  not  least,  the  tarred  gravel  roofs.  The 
pine  shelves,  ornaments,  fittings,  the  large  number  of  newly 
emptied  dry  goods  boxes,  and  the  tinder-like  interior  of  even 
the  most  solid  and  imposing  stone  structures,  furnished  abun- 
dant food  for  the  conquering  flames.  The  fire  originated  half 
a  mile  southwest  of  the  center  of  the  city,  on  the  West  Side, 
attacked  the  center,  destroyed  it  and  swept  over  the  North 
Side,  suburban  in  its  character,  until  it  reached  the  lake  and 
bare  northern  prairies.  The  burnt  district  was  on  an  average 
a  mile  wide  and  four  miles  long.  The  burnt  buildings,  placed 
side  by  side,  with  ten  feet  between  each,  would  form  a  line 
150  miles  long.  According  to  the  estimate  of  Frederick  Law 
Olmstead,  a  well-known  New  York  architect,  who  visited 
Chicago  immediately  after  the  great  disaster,  one-third  of  the 
roof  surface  and  half  the  cubic  contents  of  all  the  buildings  of 
the  city  were  destroyed  by  the  fire,  in  other  words,  a  much 
greater  part  of  the  city  was  burned  than  would  appear  from 
comparing  a  map  of  the  burnt  district  with  one  of  the  whole 
city,  because  in  the  business  portion  buildings  stood  close 
together  and  were  from  four  to  six  stories  high. 

,  THE   FIRST   ACT. 

The  Beginning  of  the  Great  Fire  on  the  West  Side. 

The  wind  which  on  Sunday  afternoon  had  been  blowing  at 
a  moderate  rate,  grew  stronger  toward  evening,  and  finally 
became  a  terrific  gale.  At  9 128  in  the  evening  the  watch- 
man in  the  central  fire  station  in  the  court  house  discovered  that 
fire  had  broken  out  on  the  West  Side,  and  located  it  near  the 
corner  of  Canalport  avenue  and  Halsted  street,  and  an  alarm 
for  that  point  was  at  once  turned  in.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the 
fire  was  in  the  rear  of  137  DeKoven  street,  near  the  corner  of 

127 


Jefferson,  and  the  watchman  had  misjudged  it  by  almost  a 
mile.  The  neighborhood  was  principally  occupied  by  Bohe- 
mians and  Irishmen,  their  houses  were  of  frame  and  cheaply 
constructed,  and  behind  many  of  them  were  barns  and  cattle 
sheds  filled  with  hay.  In  the  O'Leary's  stable  in  which  the 
fire  originated,  the  floor  was  covered  with  shavings,  which 
were  used  instead  of  straw  to  bed  the  cattle.  It  was  at  first 
supposed  that  Mrs.  O'Leary  was  milking  her  cow  by  lantern 
light,  and  that  the  cow  kicked  over  the  lantern  and  set  fire  to 
the  stable.  During  the  official  investigation,  however,  the 
O'Leary's  swore  that  they  had  not  been  in  the  stable  since  dark, 
but  this  fact  does  not  prevent  people  from  clinging  to  the 
old  tradition  that  Mrs.  O'Leary's  cow  kicked  over  her  lantern. 
Later,  the  story  found  a  champion  in  Chicago's  well-known 
and  efficient  fire  marshal,  Mat.  Benner,  who  reports  as  the 
result  of  his  private  investigations,  that  he  believes  the  cow 
undoubtedly  kicked  over  a  lamp  or  lantern,  but  that  it 
was  not  Mrs.  O'Leary's.  The  Irish  family  who  lived  with 
the  O'Learys  had  been  jollifying  all  that  Sunday  in  honor  of 
a  newly  arrived  son  of  Erin,  and  in  the  evening,  needing  milk 
for  a  punch,  it  is  supposed  that  one  of  them  volunteered  to 
milk  Mrs.  O'Leary's  cow.  He  attempted  to  do  so,  but  the 
cow  rebelled,  and  kicked  over  the  lantern  with  dire  results. 
Just  what  time  the  fire  began  it  is  impossible  to  definitely  state. 
One  engine  reached  the  scene  as  early  as  9:15?  having  been 
summoned  by  a  "  still  "  alarm.  The  preponderance  of  evi- 
dence goes  to  show  that  the  fire  had  at  that  time  been  burn- 
ing for  at  least  half  an  hour,  but  another  half  hour  elapsed  before 
other  engines  reached  the  scene,  and  the  flames  were  then 
beyond  the  control  of  the  firemen.  At  least  four  of  the  best 
engines  were  misled  by  the  error  of  the  watchman  in  the 
court  house  tower,  and  this  fact,  taken  in  connection  with  the 
exhaustion  of  the  men  on  account  of  the  preceding  night's 
fire  and  the  crippled  condition  of  the  apparatus  permitted  the 
great  catastrophe.  Second  and  third  alarms  were  turned  in, 

128 


and  finally  every  engine  in  the  city,  with  the  exception  of  one 
which  remained  on  the  South  Side,  were  summoned  by  the 
big  alarm  bell  in  the  cupola  of  the  court  house.  By  9:30  the 
flames  crossed  Taylor  street  and  attacked  several  blocks  at 
once,  while  the  howling  winds  drowned  the  noise  of  crackling 
flames  and  crashing  rafters.  Vain  were  all  efforts  to  check 
the  fire,  which,  swelled  to  fearful  proportions  by  the  ever 
increasing  fury  of  the  southwest  gale,  advanced  northward  in 
two  columns,  one  between  Canal  and  Clinton  streets,  the  other 
between  Clinton  and  Jefferson. 

All  that  could  be  done  was  to  prevent  the  fire  spreading 
west  to  Desplaines  street,  and  in  this  the  firemen  were  suc- 
cessful. Meantime  the  foe  marched  northeasterly  almost 
unhindered.  Those  who  tried  to  oppose  it,  soon  felt  its  furious 
power.  The  crew  of  engine  No.  14,  having  run  their  machine 
into  a  narrow  alley,  suddenly  found  themselves  almost  sur- 
rounded by  flames,  and  were  forced  to  abandon  the  steamer 
and  flee  for  their  lives.  One  block  after  another  fell  before 
the  raging  element  which  became  stronger  every  minute.  Polk 
street  was  reached,  then  Harrison,  and  finally  Van  Buren,  the 
boundary  of  the  burnt  district  of  the  day  before.  Here,  had 
there  been  only  an  ordinary  gale,  the  flames  would  have  stop- 
ped. Behind  were  150  acres  of  fire,  in  front  20  of  ashes,  and 
the  flames  had  not  yet  strength  enough  to  leap  over  the  four 
burnt-out  blocks.  This  empty  space — that  is  to  say,  the  scene 
of  Saturday's  fire — saved  the  West  Side  from  destruction  and 
proved  a  blessing  in  disguise.  Had  it  not  been  checked  at 
this  point,  the  column  of  fire  which  progressed  to  the  north- 
east would  have  undoubtedly  destroyed  the  whole  West  Divis- 
ion north  of  Adams  street,  and  have  stopped  only  on  reaching 
the  extreme  city  limits.  But  just  as  men  began  to  hope  that 
the  fire  would  burn  itself  out  for  lack  of  fuel,  the  terrible  and 
unexpected  happened :  the  conflagration,  checked  in  its  north- 
ward course,  turned  to  the  east,  and — a  thing  unheard  of  in 
previous  Chicago  fires — the  river  no  longer  proved  a  barrier 

P 

129 


and  protection.  The  flames  leaped  across  the  stream  and 
carried  along  by  the  tempest  fell  upon  the  buildings  on  the 
opposite  bank.  The  second  and  principal  act  had  commenced. 
With  rapid  strokes,  the  great  alarm  bell  announced  the  new  and 
fearful  change  in  the  course  of  the  great  disaster. 

Again,  it  is  found  difficult  to  accurately  time  the  progress  of 
the  flames.  Before  10  o'clock  showers  of  sparks  and  burning 
brands  were  swept  across  the  river  into  the  South  Side,  and 
some  were  carried  far  into  the  North  Division.  The  keeper 
of  the  crib,  two  miles  out  in  the  lake,  testified  that  from  1 1 
o'clock  the  sky  was  full  of  brands  and  that  he  was  kept  busy 
preventing  the  wooden  roof  of  the  crib  from  becoming  enkin- 
dled. It  is  probable  that  as  the  West  Side  fire  extended  ten 
blocks  along  the  river,  the  flames  crossed  in  several  places. 
At  least  as  early  as  n  :3O,  the  new  building  of  the  Parmelee 
Omnibus  and  Stage  Co.,  on  Jackson  street,  corner  of  Franklin, 
was  ignited  and  in  an  instant  more  was  literally  engulfed  in 
flame.  The  group  of  wretched  wooden  dwellings  known  as 
"  Conley's  patch,"  on  Fifth  avenue,  between  Adams  and  Mon- 
roe streets,  took  fire  at  midnight  and  the  gas  works  followed 
immediately.  The  flames  attacked  the  court  house  at  1 130, 
and  at  the  same  time,  State  street  bridge  began  to  burn.  At 
2 130,  Wright's  stables  on  the  North  Side  caught  fire,  and  at 
3 :2O  the  water  works  were  in  flames.  "  Conley's  patch,"  the 
court  house  and  Wright's  stables,  were  in  a  straight  line 
between  the  O'Leary  shed  and  the  water  works,  which  were 
about  2^  miles  due  northeast  from  the  spot  where  the  fire 
began.  Such  was  the  progress  of  the  conflagration  during  the 
first  6j/2  hours!  On  account  of  eddies  in  the  wind,  however, 
the  fire  burned  not  only  straight  northeast,  but  also  turned 
back,  "  ate  into  the  wind "  and  spread  on  either  side. 
Brands  blown  ahead,  kept  the  flames  well  scattered,  and  at 
times  there  were  ten  or  more  different  fires.  But  as  each 
ate  forward,  all  were  finally  united  into  one  great  element  of 
destruction. 


THE   SECOND   ACT. 

K 

The  Destruction  of  the  Business  Center  of  Chicago. 

From  the  thousands  who  had  gone  from  the  South  Side  to 
witness  the  conflagration  in  the  West  Division,  burst  a  cry  of 
horror  when  they  saw  that  the  flames  had  crossed  the  river 
and  were  burning  fiercely  in  their  rear,  threatening  to  cut  off 
their  retreat  by  the  bridges  and  imperilling  their  very  homes. 
Back  in  a  mad  rush  swept  the  people,  and  through  them  the 
fire  engines,  on  their  way  to  fight  the  flames  in  the  new 
quarter,  thunderingly  forced  their  way.  The  bridge  scenes  at 
midnight  were  pandemonium — each  narrow  way  choked  up 
with  a  struggling,  cursing  mob,  fighting  to  get  beyond  the 
line  of  fire. 

It  was  1 1 130  when  the  Parmelee  building  on  Jackson  street 
was  attacked,  and  "Conley's  patch,"  two  blocks  further 
north,  was  also  set  by  brands  blown  from  the  West  Side. 
About  midnight  a  huge,  blazing  board  was  seized  by  the  wind, 
borne  across  the  river  and  lodged  on  the  tinder-like  roof  of  a 
three-story  tenement  on  Market  street.  All  around  were  low 
wooden  buildings,  saloons,  hovels  and  sheds,  the  dens  of  the 
lowest  classes  in  the  city.  This  terror  spot,  the  very  home  of 
crime,  \vas  to  be  purged  by  fire.  Most  of  the  male  inhabit- 
ants were  across  the  river,  and,  as  the  flames  laid  hold  of  the 
wretched  buildings,  squalid  women  and  children  rushed  out  in 
droves — awe-struck  and  terrified,  they  wandered  about  in 
hopeless,  helpless  bewilderment.  Most  of  them  finally 
escaped,  but  scores  perished  miserably  in  the  great  wilderness 
of  flame.  Some  of  the  wretched  fugitives  were  joined  by 
their  sisters  from  Fifth  avenue  and  Jackson  street  and  by  the 
tribes  of  thieves  which  infested  .the  locality;  saloons  were 
broken  open,  and  hellish  orgies  added  to  the  night's  hideousness. 
At  this  time,  between  I  and  2  in  the  morning,  no  one  in  or 
near  the  heart  of  Chicago  slept.  On  the  burning  streets 


surged  throngs  of  men  and  crowds  of  vehicles  laden  with 
property — all  driving  toward  the  lake  shore.  As  soon  as  the 
news  of  the  calamity  reached  the  aristocratic  mansions  on 
Calumet,  Prairie  and  Indiana  avenues,  business  men  hastened 
down-town.  With  dire  apprehension  and  heavy  hearts  they 
made  their  way  toward  stores  and  offices.  An  awful  sight  met 
their  gaze.  Like  lightning  the  fire  rushed  up  the  wooden 
sidewalks  and  moved  simultaneously  on  Market,  Franklin  and 
Fifth  avenue  northward  to  Madison  street,  the  entrance  to 
the  wholesale  district.  For  a  moment  there  was  hope  that 
the  destroying  fiend  would  move  directly  toward  the  lake  and 
so  skip  a  part  of  the  business  center.  But  suddenly  the  wind 
veered,  and  the  fate  of  hundreds  of  Chicago  business  palaces 
and  of  millions  of  dollars  worth  of  merchandise  was  sealed. 
With  a  mighty  leap  the  fire  reached  La  Salle  street  from 
Fifth  avenue,  and  from  Jackson  another  column  of  flames 
came  rolling  on  to  make  common  cause  with  the  advance 
guard  in  the  great  destruction.  This  was  the  first  fire 
which  had  worked  its  way  from  the  Parmelee  building  east  to 
the  new  Grand  Pacific,  the  first  of  the  better  class  of  build- 
ings to  be  attacked.  The  great  hotel,  stretching  a  block,  from 
La  Salle  to  Clark  street,  had  just  been  roofed  in  and  had  cost 
almost  $1,000,000.  As  if  in  anger  at  its  imposing  dimensions 
the  fire  swept  over  it,  shone  luridly  from  every  window  space 
and  in  a  moment  more  left  it  tottering  in  ruins.  Just  a  block 
to  the  south  the  splendid  and  massive  depot  of  the  Rock 
Island  and  Michigan  Southern  roads  was  enveloped  in  flames, 
which  came  from  a  third  crossing  of  the  river  at  Van  Buren 
street.  After  the  destruction  of  the  depot  a  wing  of  the  fire 
spread  southward,  threatening  the  residence  portion  of  the 
South  Side  beyond  Harrison  street;  but  the  immense  stone 
freight  depot  on  Griswold  street  offered  an  impregnable  front 
and  for  the  time  at  least  prevented  the  further  southward  march 
of  the  conflagration.  From  the  Rock  Island  depot  the  flames 
licked  up  some  shabby  buildings,  and  worked  northeasterly 

132 


toward  the  magnificent  Bigelow  House,  then  just  completed 
and  ready  to  be  thrown  open  to  the  public  on  that  very  day. 
It  stood  on  Dearborn  street,  between  Adams  and  Quincy,  and 
from  it  the  all-consuming  element  swept  grandly  over  Honore's 
two  blocks  and  the  Academy  of  Design,  filled  with  noble 
works  of  art. 

Now  the  waves  of  fire  took  on  greater  proportions. 
Hundreds  of  buildings  far  in  advance  of  the  on-rushing  column 
were  blazing  pillars  of  fire,  but  the  main  body  of  the  flames 
was  all-devouring,  systematic,  relentless — everything  fell 
before  its  wasting  power.  Huge  tongues  of  flame  stretched 
out  for  acres,  sheets  of  fire  covered  entire  blocks,  enwrap- 
ping every  building  in  a  surging,  seething,  billowy  and  tumultu- 
ous sea.  The  heat  was  almost  inconceivable.  Six-story 
buildings  were  attacked,  shone  with  a  wild  red  glow,  flames 
burst  forth,  and  within  five  minutes  the  whole  structure 
literally  melted  to  the  ground.  The  fiercest  tornado  ever 
known  here  was  blowing,  and,  as  William  B.  Ogden  pointed 
out,  its  effect  was  like  the  action  of  a  blow-pipe,  causing  so 
perfect  a  combustion  that  the  brilliant  blaze  consumed  even 
the  smoke,  and  the  heat  was  so  intense  as  to  melt  iron  girders 
and  crumble  into  dust  and  ashes  most  of  the  building  stones 
used  in  the  city's  construction.  Despite  its  awfulness,  the 
scene  was  one  of  wild  beauty  and  imposing  grandeur.  So 
continuous  was  the  crash  of  falling  buildings  that,  although 
the  ground  trembled  as  if  from  an  earthquake,  the  people  paid 
no  heed./ 

Hardly  20  minutes  after  the  north-marching  column  from 
the  Grand  Pacific  cut  its  swath  through  the  magnificent 
buildings  on  La  Salle  street,  the  Chamber  of  Commerce, 
corner  of  La  Salle  and  Washington  streets,  was  reached,  and 
soon  fell  a  crumbling  heap  of  ruins.  An  attempt  was  now 
made  to  check  the  progress  of  the  flames  by  blowing  up 
buildings  with  gunpowder,  and  the  Merchants'  Insurance 
building  was  leveled  by  a  tremendous  explosion.  But  all  was 

133 


in  vain — the  pitiless  fire  leaped  the  broad  black  chasm  as  if 
there  had  been  no  intervening  space,  and  fell  upon  the  struc- 
tures beyond.  The  flames  from  the  Grand  Pacific  spread 
eastward  as  well  as  to  the  north,  and  occupied  but  a  moment 
in  working  across  the  Lombard  and  Reynold's  blocks,  and  at 
3  o'clock  in  the  morning  attacked  the  postoffice  and  custom 
house  on  the  northwest  corner  of  Dearborn  and  Monroe 
streets.  This  was  a  supposedly  fire-proof  edifice,  but  all  the 
iron  shutters  had  been  removed  from  the  first  floor,  which 
was  filled  with  wooden  furniture  and  fittings  and  inflammable 
mail  matter.  The  blaze  soon  found  the  vulnerable  points,  and 
the  first  floor  became  a  sheet  of  fire.  The  intense  heat  melted 
the  iron  beams  supporting  the  floors  above,  and  the  whole 
inside  of  the  building,  fire-proof  vaults,  safes  and  all,  fell  crash- 
ing to  the  basement  in  common  destruction.  The  building 
contained  the  United  States  depository,  in  which  there  were 
about  $2,000,000.  Of  this  amount  about  $1,500,000  were 
green-backs  and  national  bank  notes,  which  were  destroyed. 
Of  the  specie,  most  was  recovered,  but  almost  all  was  melted 
and  run  together  in  a  great  mass  of  gold,  silver  and  copper. 
The  burning  of  the  court  house  illustrates  one  peculiarity  of 
the  fire;  the  flames  did  not  progress  continuously,  but  there 
were  constantly  advance  fires.  The  court  house  was  a  sub- 
stantial structure  in  the  middle  of  the  square  bounded  by 
Washington,  La  Salle,  Randolph  and  Clark  streets.  The 
wooden  cupola  took  fire  as  early  as  midnight,  but  watchmen 
stationed  there  repeatedly  extinguished  the  blaze.  Finally  at 
1 130  o'clock  the  heat  grew  so  intense  and  the  flames  laid  such 
firm  hold  upon  the  wooden  roof  and  cupola  that  the  watchmen 
were  obliged  to  abandon  the  building  —  and  none  too  soon, 
for  both  were  severely  burned  before  they  made  their  escape. 
As  they  went  down  the  stairs  they  set  in  motion  the  machin- 
ery that  rang  the  alarm  bell,  which  then,  without  human  aid, 
continued  to  peal  forth  its  terrible  warnings  for  half  an  hour. 
Finally  at  2 105  it  fell,  carrying  down  with  it  the  iron  stairs  and 

134 


burning  rafters  of  the  cupola.  In  the  court  house  were 
archives,  deeds,  abstracts,  titles  to  all  buildings  and  lots,  and 
other  priceless  papers,  but  all  were  destroyed.  On  the  lower 
floor  were  the  county  prisoners,  150  or  more,  and  when  the 
building  took  fire  all  but  the  murderers  were  set  free.  With  a 
wild  yell  the  wretches,  many  of  them  half-naked,  rushed  out 
of  the  building,  attacked  a  passing  dray  laden  with  ready 
made  clothing  and  disappeared.  Officers  handcuffed  those 
prisoners  charged  with  murder  and  led  them  out  of  the 
building,  which  was  already  glowing  like  a  furnace.  As 
many  as  twelve  different  fires  were  now  raging  at  once. 
Skirmishing  lines  swept  forward,  far  in  advance  of  the  main 
columns,  which  continued  more  slowly  their  resistless  march, 
checked  now  and  then  by  a  sterner  battle  waged  around 
some  great  building,  as  the  larger  hotels,  postoffice  and  court 
house.  Since  midnight  the  air  had  been  hot  with  the  breath 
of  the  fire  demon,  which  shriveled  and  scorched  all  things. 
Cinders,  ashes,  coals  and  brands  were  falling  in  showers.  The 
Sherman  House  on  Clark  and  Randolph  streets,  opposite  the 
court  house,  as  yet  withstood  the  attack.  On  its  immense 
flat  roof  hundreds  had  gathered,  who  with  tireless  energy 
extinguished  the  fire  brands  which  rained  down  thick  and  fast. 
But  all  endeavors  were  in  vain.  Suddenly  out  of  the  hun- 
dreds of  windows  burst  the  fiery  tongues,  and  so  rapid  was 
the  work  of  destruction  that  those  in  the  building  escaped  only 
with  the  greatest  difficulty. 

It  was  4  o'clock  in  the  morning  when  this  great  hotel 
fell  in  ruins.  The  same  fate  overtook  all  the  other  leading  . 
caravansaries  of  the  city.  At  3  o'clock  the  Matteson  House, 
corner  of  Dearborn  and  Randolph  streets,  was  destroyed, 
at  3 130  the  Tremont  House  went  up  in  smoke,  and  at  4  the 
Briggs  House  followed.  The  course  of  the  fire  east  from  the 
court  house  took  in  Hopley's  Opera  House  (on  the  site  of  the 
present  Grand  Opera  House)  the  Republican  office  and  the 
big  newspaper  buildings  on  Dearborn  street,  those  of  the 

135 


Post,  Times,  Mail,  Staats-Zeitung  and  Evening  Journal  and 
scores  of  other  buildings,  many  of  them  models  of  architectural 
beauty.  Then  Crosby's  magnificent  Opera  House  fell.  It 
had  just  been  renovated,  and  was  to  have  been  opened  Mon- 
day night  by  the  Thomas  Orchestra.  From  it  the  flames 
spread  to  the  St.  James,  corner  of  State  and  Washington 
streets,  the  last  of  the  big  hotels  to  crash  a  heap  of  ruins  to 
the  earth.  Opposite  the  St.  James  were  the  First  National 
Bank  building,  which  resisted  the  flames  until  5  o'clock  in  the 
morning,  and  the  dry  goods  palace  of  Field  &  Leiter,  which 
lasted  but  a  half  hour  longer.  These  State  street  build- 
ings were  all  north  of  Madison,  and  at  5  o'clock  the  fire  south 
of  Madison  had  not  crossed  even  Dearborn  street.  The  Trib- 
une office,  though  threatened  several  times,  had  thus  far 
escaped,  as  had  McVicker's  theatre  and  the  Palmer  House. 
As  late  as  6:30  in  the  morning  it  seemed  that  a  part  of  Chi- 
cago—  that  lying  between  Madison  and  Harrison  streets, 
east  of  Dearborn  —  was  to  be  saved,  and  exhausted  humanity 
began  to  seek  food  and  rest.  But  the  end  was  not  yet.  About 
7  o'clock  a  sudden  gust  of  the  still  raging  tempest  swept  with 
fiercer  violence  through  Dearborn  street,  near  Jackson.  The 
rioting  elements,  renewing  the  attack  with  increased  fury, 
were  to  win  a  complete  victory.  Live  coals  were  caught  up 
from  the  ruins  of  the  Bigelow  House  and  hurled  against  the 
wooden  buildings  across  the  street,  the  triumphant  flames  swept 
once  more-to  the  north  and  east,  and  the  last  chance  to  bring 
the  terrible  devastation  to  a  halt  had  passed  unimproved.  All 
that  had  been  left  untouched  from  Dearborn  street  to  the  lake 
shore  was  doomed  to  destruction.  McVicker's  theatre  fell, 
the  flames  covered  the  Palmer  House  on  Quincy  and  State 
streets,  and  finally  the  new  Tribune  building  yielded  to  des- 
perate assaults.  This  structure  was  of  Joliet  marble  and  of 
the  most  massive  style  of  architecture,  and  had  been  consid- 
ered really  fire-proof.  Up  to  8  o'clock  the  men  employed 
to  fight  the  flames  stood  at  their  posts,  but  then  of  a  sudden 

136 


the  fire  burst  out  on  all  sides,  seeming  to  come  from  the  interior 
of  the  building  itself,  and  so  rapidly  did  the  blaze  spread  that 
the  watchmen  barely  escaped. 

As  the  fury  of  the  hurricane  died  down,  the  fire  progressed 
to  the  south  and  southwest,  along  Wabash  and  Michigan  ave- 
nues, through  beautiful  stores  and  magnificent  dwellings,  melt- 
ing its  way  through  the  thickest  masonry,  right  into  the  teeth 
of  the  wind.  It  seemed  impossible  to  stop  it.  Past  Jackson, 
Van  Buren  and  Congress  streets  it  swept,  threatening  to  eat 
its  way  to  the  very  limits  of  the  city.  No  engines  were  at 
hand,  and  the  only  thing  to  do  was  to  blow  up  the  buildings 
standing  in  the  path  of  the  flames.  Gen.  Philip  H.  Sheridan 
personally  superintended  this  work,  which  was  begun  at  Har- 
rison street.  Several  buildings  were  blown  up  and  others  were 
pulled  and  chopped  down  and  the  southward  march  of  the  fire 
finally  checked.  The  substantially  built  Wabash  avenue 
Methodist  church  also  helped  in  the  salvation  of  the  southern 
end  of  town  and  its  heavy,  honest  walls  proved  the  turning 
point  in  the  battle.  Terrace  Row,  a  palatial  block  of  residences 
on  Michigan  avenue,  between  Congress  and  Van  Buren  streets, 
was  the  last  group  of  buildings  burned  in  the  south  end  of  the 
city.  When  its  last  wall  fell  about  noon,  there  remained  in  the 
South  Division  north  of  it,  only  the  Lind  block  at  the  east  end 
of  Randolph  street  bridge  and  the  Illinois  Central  elevator, 
just  north  of  the  once  splendid  depot  of  the  company.  A  large 
share  of  the  costly  equipments  of  the  beautiful  Terrace  Row 
homes  were  transferred  to  safety  further  out  on  the  South 
Side.  The  lake  front  was  filled  with  men,  women  and  child- 
ren and  property  of  every  description.  Significant  of  the 
stern  mood  of  the  people  on  that  memorable  Monday  morning 
is  the  fact  that  the  thunder  of  the  powder  explosions  infused 
them  with  new  courage. 

Perhaps  some  parts  of  the  business  center  might  have  been 
saved — notably,  the  portion  of  the  city  east  of  Dearborn  street 
and  south  of  Madison — had  not  the  water  works  on  the  North 

137 


Side  been  destroyed  shortly  after  3  o'clock  in  the  morning. 
The  roof  of  the  massive  and  otherwise  thoroughly  fire-proof 
water  works  building  was  a  temporary  affair,  constructed 
of  highly  inflammable  material  which  readily  ignited  from  the 
cinders  and  burning  brands  which  fell  on  it,  after  being  carried 
by  the  wind  for  miles  through  the  air.  Soon  the  roof  crashed 
in,  burying  in  a  blazing  heap  of  debris  the  colossal  steam 
pumps,  and  the  water  supply  in  the  hydrants  was  soon 
exhausted.  To  add  to  the  terror  of  the  situation,  the  gas  supply 
also  gave  out,  the  gas  works  on  the  South  Side  on  Market 
street,  and  later,  those  on  the  North  Side  being  burned  down. 
From  this  time  the  fate  of  the  still  unburned  portion  of  the 
business  center  and  of  all  the  North  Side  was  sealed.  The 
loss  of  the  water  works  rendered  useless  all  further  resistance  to 
the  flames. 

Only  at  some  of  the  bridges,  notably  at  Lake,  Randolph 
and  Madison  streets,  where  the  engines  could  pump  water 
directly  from  the  river,  was  the  great  battle  still  waged.  It 
was  no  longer  a  question  of  saving  certain  South  Side  build- 
ings, but  the  salvation  of  the  whole  West  Side,  threatened  by 
the  on-rolling  flames,  was  at  stake.  Had  the  fire  succeeded 
in  re-crossing  the  river  by  means  of  the  bridges  leading  into 
the  West  Division,  that  whole  quarter  of  the  city,  with  its 
depots,  factories  and  numerous  dwellings,  reaching  to  the 
northern  city  limits,  would  have  been  doomed.  Thousands  of 
spectators  witnessed  the  struggle  with  intense  excitement  and 
alarm.  The  wasting  tongues  of  flame  were  already  licking 
up  two  great  warehouses  on  Market  street,  near  Lake  street, 
and  very  near  the  bridge.  Out  of  doors  and  windows  the 
blaze  was  already  shooting,  and  the  heat  was  as  intense  as  in 
a  furnace.  The  crowd  on  the  west  bank  of  the  river  felt  the 
terrible  glow  and  drew  back,  but  the  firemen  did  not  stir. 
Although  but  forty  feet  from  the  fiery  sea,  they  held  their 
ground  and  poured  streams  of  water  upon  the  wooden  bridge 
and  the  approach  until  both  were  fairly  flooded.  Finally,  just 

138 


as  the  sun  appeared,  blood-red  and  rayless,  over  the  gray 
waters  of  the  lake  and  looked  down  upon  the  scene  of  devasta- 
tion as  with  the  single  eye  of  a  demon,  the  heroic  efforts  of 
the  firemen  were  crowned  with  success,  the  march  of  the  flames 
checked,  the  West  Side  saved.  At  Madison  street  there  was 
another  victory  over  the  fire.  Many  thought  to  see  the  flames 
cross  the  river  at  this  point,  and  the  situation  for  a  time  was 
remarkably  critical.  No  fire  engine  was  at  hand,  but  before 
the  flames  reached  the  bridge,  hose  was  attached  to  the 
immense  steam  pump  of,  Norton's  Oriental  Mills  (just  across 
the  river  on  Madison  street)  and  for  hours  two  powerful 
streams  of  water  were  thrown  upon  the  exposed  property, 
which  was  thus  effectually  protected./ 

When  the  court  house  burned,  the  fire-proof  vaults  proved 
of  little  value,  and  all  the  official  records,  deeds  and  abstracts 
were  destroyed.  This  loss  would  have  resulted  in  endless 
confusion  and  difficulty  in  establishing  and  re-establishing 
titles  to  property  within  the  limits  of  Cook  county  had  not 
some  well-kept  private  records  been  preserved.  These  were 
afterwards  substituted  for  the  official  records,  and  adequate 
laws  were  passed  to  that  effect.  The  abstract  firm  of 
Shortall  &  Hoard  saved  most  of  their  books  and  records,  and 
other  abstract  firms  saved  enough  to  make  a  complete  file. 
John  G.  Shortall  was  personally  responsible  for  saving  the 
books  of  his  firm,  which  were  to  be  of  such  inestimable  value, 
not  to  himself  so  much  as  to  every  property  owner  of 
Chicago.  When  he.reached  his  office  in  the  Larmon  block, 
near  the  court  house,  it  was  past  midnight,  and  burning 
brands  were  falling  like  hail  upon  the  roof,  windows  and 
awnings  of  the  building.  Shortall  tore  down  the  awnings, 
several  of  which  were  already  in  flames,  and  did  what  he 
could  to  fight  the  fire,  but  by  i  o'clock  it  was  apparent  that 
the  building  was  doomed.  In  his  anxiety  to  save  his  records 
Shortall  approached  no  less  than  fifteen  expressmen,  offering 
large  sums  to  anyone  who  would  carry  the  precious  books  to 

139 


a  place  of  safety.  Finally,  when  the  court  house  began  to 
burn,  the  immediate  procuring  of  a  wagon  became  absolutely 
necessary,  and  a  friend  of  Shortall  pressed  an  expressman  into 
service  at  the  point  of  a  revolver.  But  few  of  the  books 
would  go  into  the  wagon  and  Shortall  was  in  despair,  when 
help  finally  appeared  in  the  shape  of  a  heavy  two-horse  dray, 
sent  by  Joseph  Stockton.  Into  it  the  books  were  piled,  and 
with  the  flames  roaring  all  around  were  successfully  taken  to 
Shortall's  house,  852  Prairie  avenue. 

The  fire  had  now  destroyed  all  the  bridges  between  the 
North  and  South  Sides,  the  last  to  go,  being  the  Rush  street 
bridge,  which  fell  at  4:30  in  the  morning.  The  loss  of  this 
last  bridge  and  the  fact  that  smoke  and  steam  prevented  the 
use  of  the  La  Salle  street  tunnel,  cut  off  all  avenue  of  escape 
from  the  down-town  district  to  the  North  Side,  while  the 
flames,  rapidly  progressing  along  Harrison  street,  checked 
all  retreat  to  the  south.  This  left  the  lake  front  as  the 
only  place  of  refuge  for  the  thousands  who  were  in  the 
business  center,  and  the  burning  of  the  great  Illinois  Central 
passenger  station,  at  the  foot  of  Lake  street,  and  of  the  vari- 
ous buildings  along  Michigan  avenue,  literally  encompassed 
the  unfortunates  between  walls  of  fire  on  three  sides  while  the 
cold  waters  of  the  lake  lay  on  the  other.  Huddled  together 
on  this  narrow  strip  of  land  the  poor  wretches  watched  the 
gorgeous  spectacle  of  the  burning  city,  with  a  sensation  of 
weary  despair  and  a  grim  acceptance  of  their  crushing  fate. 
Since  the  burning  of  Field  &  Leiter's  magnificent  store,  second 
only  in  size  and  value  of  contents  to  one  dry  goods  house  in 
the  land,  this  changed  mood  had  come  over  the  people.  A 
sense  of  their  utter  helplessness  seemed  to  weigh  upon  them. 
The  heroes  of  a  few  hours  before  became  indifferent,  and 
thieves  robbed  and  pillaged  openly  and  recklessly.  Thous- 
ands of  valuable  books  were  lugged  away  from  the  great 
book  concerns  on  State  street,  only  to  be  later  thrown  away 
or  burned  up.  At  Field  &  Leiter's  the  most  elaborate 

140 


preparations  for  defense  had  been  made.  The  whole  front  of 
the  building  was  covered  with  wet  blankets,  and  the  roof  filled 
with  people  ready  to  extinguish  the  falling  embers  and  fire- 
brands. The  flames  were  fought  back  to  the  last  possible 
moment,  but  when  their  victory  did  come,  it  was  instanta- 
neous. From  all  the  numerous  windows  of  the  palatial  build- 
ing, the  blaze  shot  forth  its  fire  tongues  simultaneously,  the 
white  marble  fronts  were  illuminated  with  a  terrible  glow,  and 
in  a  moment  more  the  enormous  structure  fell  in  ruins,  crushed, 
as  a  toy  house  would  tumble  under  the  hands  of  a  giant. 

STREET  SCENES  DURING  THE  FIRE. 

/ 

The  South  Side  streets  during  the  fire  were  a  panorama  of 
remarkable  spectacles.  As  in  a  shipwreck,  every  one  showed 
himself  in  his  true  colors.  Selfishness  in  all  its  phases  and 
stages  was  seen.  It  was  represented  by  the  cowardly  egotist 
who  thoughtful  only  of  his  own  salvation  was  ready  to  trample 
on  every  one  and  everything  in  his  way,  and  by  the  daring 
robber  who  plundered  large  stores  and  carried  away  valuable 
merchandise  by  the  car  load.  But  there  were  also  examples  of 
the  most  noble  self-sacrifice  and  touching  readiness  to  assist 
the  helpless  and  unfortunate.  The  development  of  the  street 
scenes  runs  parallel  with  the  development  of  the  fire.  The 
effects  of  the  former  increase  with  that  of  the  latter.  First, 
the  streets  seemed  only  very  lively.  The  hundreds  of  fire 
victims  who,  with  a  portion  of  their  hastily  saved  property,  were 
looking  for  a  place  of  safety,  resembled  a  river  which  strug- 
gles to  leap  from  the  narrow  confines  of  its  banks  into  the 
broad  ocean.  But  after  the  fire  had  seized  the  very  heart  of 
the  city  and  the  destruction  proceeded  with  such  terrible 
rapidity,  the  mass  of  people  running  to  save  their  lives,  swelled 
to  a  wild  torrent  over  which  nobody  could  exercise  control.  As 
soon  as  it  became  evident  that  the  saving  of  the  business  cen- 
ter was  out  of  the  question,  uncanny  figures  mingled  with 

142 


the  multitude  and  began  their  work.  First,  they  broke  into 
stores  under  the  pretext  of  assisting  in  saving  goods,  though 
most  merchants  preferred  seeing  their  property  burn  to  having 
it  so  securely  saved  that  they  would  never  see  it  again. 
Finally  the  thieves  and  robbers  threw  off  every  mask  and  used 
open  violence.  The  police,  of  whom  150  out  of  a  force  of 
450  were  themselves  burned  out,  left  the  streets  and  at  most 
watched  only  the  millions  of  dollars  worth  of  property  which 
was  piled  up  in  Dearborn  Park,  within  the  high  fences  of  the 
base-ball  club  or  in  Lake  Front  Park,  where  it  was  finally  over- 
taken by  the  flames. 

Lake  street,  with  its  dry  goods  and  jewelry  stores,  was  a 
choice  field  for  the  operation  of  the  robbers,  who  made  com- 
mon cause  with  the  expressmen  and  operated  on  a  wholesale 
plan.  In  aiding  the  thieves  the  expressmen  reduced  the  number 
of  vehicles  at  the  service  of  honest  merchants,  many  of  whom, 
seeing  their  helplessness  between  robbers  and  flames,  threw 
open  their  doors  and  invited  all  in  to  help  themselves  to  what- 
soever they  fancied.  The  coolness  of  the  rascals  stood  them 
in  good  stead,  and  they  chose  only  what  was  of  cash  value. 
Whole  car  loads  of  precious  rugs,  shawls,  silks  and  laces  were 
carried  away,  and  but  seldom  recovered,  though  one  merchant 
got  track  of  some  of  his  property  in  St.  Louis.  Owners  of  wag- 
ons, with  few  exceptions,  were  grossly  exorbitant  in  their 
charges  for  even  the  slightest  service,  and  invariably 
demanded  cash  in  advance.  In  numerous  cases  when  a  man  had 
loaded  a  wagon  with  his  most  valuable  property  some  armed 
villain  calmly  mounted  the  seat  and  drove  of  with  it.  Other 
richly  laden  wagons  were  looted  by  the  mobs  through 
which  they  passed. 

The  pillaging  went  on  in  all  the  stores  of  the  city,  and  when 
a  man  succeeded  in  getting  some  of  his  most  valuable  posses- 
sions from  his  burning  house  or  store  he  was  not  infrequently 
relieved  of  them  directly  afterwards  at  the  point  of  a  revolver. 
Jewels  were  torn  from  the  fingers  and  necks  of  women  and 

H3 


children.  In  front  of  Shay's  magnificent  store  a  thief  drove 
up,  and  in  spite  of  the  remonstrances  of  the  employes,  pro- 
ceeded to  load  up  his  wagon  with  valuable  silks  and  laces. 
When  the  wagon  was  finally  loaded  some  one  threatened  to 
shoot  the  robber  if  he  attempted  to  take  his  plunder  away, 
but  he  was  not  so  easily  cowed,  and  coolly  said  "shoot  and 
be  damned,"  whereupon  the  man  put  his  pistol  in  his  pocket 
and  the  thief  drove  away  with  his  booty.  East  of  Shay's 
store  immense  quantities  of  all  kinds  of  fancy  goods  were 
scattered  over  the  streets,  and  over  them  swept  the  streams  of 
people  and  wagons  until  the  fire  burnt  up  what  had  already 
been  crushed  and  ruined. 

Toward  morning  the  streets  not  yet  reached  by  the  fire  were 
the  scene  of  a  veritable  pandemonium.  Barrels  of  whisky,  bot- 
tled liquors  of  all  kinds,  partly  given  away  by  dealers  who  could 
not  save  them  and  in  part  stolen,  inflamed  the  most  beastly 
passions  and  aroused  the  lower  classes  to  deeds  of  violence. 
As  the  fire  progressed  men  seemed  to  be  possessed  with  the 
idea  that  they  needed  the  stimulation  of  liquor,  and  drank 
heavily  at  the  great  saloons  and  wholesale  houses,  where 
whisky  was  given  so  freely.  This  was  true  of  women  as 
well  as  men,  and  hundreds  drank  then  who  never  had  before. 
Not  nearly  all  were  drunk,  but  the  drunken  phase  was  terri- 
bly prominent.  Among  the  better  classes,  the  stimulants  pro- 
duced that  humor  of  despair  which  in  so  momentous  a  tragedy 
appears  as  the  ghastly  caricature  of  true  mirth. 

An  eye  witness  gives  the  following  description  of  scenes  on 
the  South  Side: 

For  miles  around  was  a  circle  of  red  light.  The  brute  creation  was  crazed.  Horses 
maddened  by  heat  and  noise,  irritated  by  falling  sparks,  neighed  and  screamed  with 
affright  and  anger,  roared,  kicked  and  bit  each  other  or  stood  with  drooping  tails  and 
rigid  legs,  ears  laid  back  and  eyes  wild  with  amazement,  shivering  as  if  with  cold.  Dogs 
ran  hither  and  thither,  howling  dismally.  Great  brown  rats,  with  bead-like  eyes,  were 
ferreted  out  from  under  the  sidewalks  by  the  flames  and  skurried  along  the  streets, 
kicked  at,  trampled  upon,  hunted  down.  Flocks  of  beautiful  pigeons,  so  plentiful  in  the 
city,  wheeled  up  aimlessly,  circled  blindly,  and  fell  into  the  raging  fire  beneath. 

The  people  were  mad.  They  crowded  upon  frail  coigns  of  vantage,  on  high  side- 
walks, which  fell  beneath  their  weight  and  hurled  them  bruised  and  bleeding  in  the  dust. 
They  fell  over  broken  furniture  and  were  trampled  under  foot.  Seized  with  wild  panic 

I44 


they  surged  together,  backwards  and  forward-,  m  the  narrow  streets,  cursing,  threatning, 
imploring,  fighting  to  get  free.  Liquor  flowed  like  water,  for  saloons  were  broken 
open  and  despoiled,  and  men  were  to  be  seen  on  all  sides  frenzied  with  drink.  Fourth 
and  Pacific  avenues  emptied  their  denizens  into  the  throng.  Ill-omen  and  obscure  birds 
of  night  were  they,  villainous,  debauched,  pinched  with  misery  they  flitted  through  the 
crowd,  ragged,  dirty,  unkempt — negroes  with  stolid  faces,  and  white  men  who  battened 
on  the  wages  of  shame— they  glided  among  the  mass  like  hyenas  in  search  of  prey. 
They  smashed  windows  with  their  naked  hands,  regardless  of  the  wounds  inflicted,  and 
with  bloody  fingers  rifled  till  and  shelf  and  cellars,  fighting  viciously  for  the  spoils  of 
the  forage.  Women,  hollow-eyed  and  brazen  faced,  with  filthy  drapery  tied  over  them, 
their  clothes  in  tatters  and  their  feet  in  trodden-over  slippers,  moved  here  and  there, 
scolding,  stealing,  fighting,  laughing  at  the  beautiful  and  splendid  crash  of  walls  and  the 
falling  roofs.  On  Lake  street  bands  of  thieves  broke  into  stores  and  threw  whole  bales 
of  goods  to  their  confederates,  who  fought  openly  for  the  plunder.  *  *  *  * 

When  I  reached  Wabash  avenue  I  found  that  immense  street  filled  with  objects  of 
every  possible  description,  and  crowded  with  masses  of  fugitives.  All  those  who  had 
been  driven  from  their  homes  by  the  advancing  flames,  had  taken  with  them  as  much  of 
their  personal  property  as  they  could  stagger  along  with,  and  as  their  onward  march  was 
getting  extremely  difficult— for  the  bridge  was  even  more  jammed  than  the  streets  — 
many  of  the  panic-striken  mob  threw  their  property  away.  Streets  and  sidewalks 
presented  a  remarkable  scene  of  broken  mirrors,  torn  paintings,  ruined  books  and 
wrecked  pianos.  Added  to  this  was  the  fact  that  the  merchandise  dragged  from  the 
stores  had  taken  fire  while  the  drunken  rabble,  having  broken  into  a  liquor  store, 
brandished  champagne  bottles  and  executed  a  fire  can-can.  One  drunken  man  chose  a 
piano  for  his  pulpit,  and  addressed  the  mob.  The  fire,  he  argued,  was  the  friend  of  the 
poor.  He  wanted  each  to  take  the  best  liquor  he  could  find,  and  in  this  strain  continued 
until  some  one  as  maudlin  as  himself  brought  him  down  with  a  well- aimed  bottle  of  whisky. 

In  this  chaos  hundreds  of  lost  children  rushed  around  crying  and  screaming  for  their 
parents.  I  noticed  a  little  golden  haired  girl,  whose  long,  loosely  hanging  locks  caught 
fire.  The  child  shrieked  and  ran  past  me,  when  someone  threw  upon  her  head  a  glass  of 
brandy,  which  instantly  caught  fire  and  enveloped  the  little  one  in  a  blue  flame.  It  was 
impossible  for  me  to  work  my  way  to  Rush  street  bridge,  and  I  returned  to  Randolph 
street  bridge,  which  I  finally  crossed  in  safety. 

As  the  fire  pressed  on  toward  the  lake  the  more  difficult 
progress  on  the  unburnt  streets  became,  and  the  more  terrible 
the  rush  for  the  lake  shore.  At  2  o'clock  in  the  morning, 
people  on  State  street  south  of  Van  Buren  felt  perfectly  safe, 
but  a  few  hours  later  this  sense  of  security  had  so  entirely  van- 
ished that  from  Harrison  street,  the  final  limit  of  the  fire, 
to  Twelfth  street,  everyone  abandoned  his  house  and 
rushed  furiously  toward  the  lake  shore — there  to  remain 
exposed  to  the  choking  smoke  and  bitter  wind  all  that  long 
Monday,  although  as  a  matter  of  fact  none  of  their  houses 
had  been  burned/ 

Loss  of  human  life  added  sorrow  to  the  terrible  scenes  of 
the  fire.  Just  how  many  of  the  wretched  creatures  who  lived 
in  the  top  stories  of  business  blocks  were  surprised  by  the 

10 

M5 


flames  and  burned  to  death  in  the  midst  of  their  %  Jd  orgies 
will  never  be  known.  Even  human  bones  do  not  resist  the 
fierce  intensity  of  a  fire  which  reduces  stone  itself  to  ashes. 
In  one  of  the  four-story  windows  of  Speed's  block  on  Dear- 
born street  a  man,  evidently  just  aroused  from  bed,  was  seen 
to  appear  after  the  upper  and  lower  parts  of  the  building  were 
on  fire.  The  stairways  were  already  in  flames  and  he  was  60 
feet  from  the  ground.  No  ladder  was  at  hand.  The  suffo- 
cating smoke  grew  denser  momentarily — some  desperate 
chance  must  be  tried.  Suddenly  the  man  left  the  window. 
Soon  he  re-appears  and  mechanically  throws  down  a  mattress 
— then  some  bedding.  Once  more  he  looks  down  the  fright- 
ful depth.  For  a  moment  he  halts  undecided,  then  disappears 
for  an  instant.  But  there  is  no  escape  and  in  despair  he  dares 
all.  Climbing  out  of  the  window  he  swings  by  his  hands  from 
the  sill.  The  gleam  of  the  flames  plays  on  his  naked  limbs. 
Now  he  lets  go  and  the  next  second  catches  the  projecting  cap 
of  the  third  story  window,  another  fall  and  he  clings  to  the 
sill.  The  multitude  below  watching  breathlessly  this  struggle 
for  life  and  death,  breaks  out  in  a  cry  of  joy.  The  man  enters 
the  window  but  can  evidently  find  no  means  of  escape  from 
within  for  he  returns  again  and  repeats  his  daring  feat — twice 
so  successful.  Again  he  succeeds  and  now  he  hangs  on  the 
window  sill  but  30  feet  from  the  street.  Below  him  the  wall 
is  smoothness  itself.  There  is  nothing  to  cling  to  and  he  tries 
to  swing  to  the  roof  of  a  low  structure  adjoining,  but  it  is  too 
far  away.  The  people  below  call  to  him  to  make  the  attempt 
once  more.  He  does  so,  but  it  is  impossible  for  him  to  swing 
himself  so  far.  He  tries  it  repeatedly,  holding  on  with  one 
hand  and  swings  like  a  pendulum.  Motionless  finally,  he  hangs 
there,  then  slowly  turns  his  head  and  looks  below.  The  flames 
are  hot  around  him  and  he  at  last  releases  his  hold.  A  second 
later  and  he  crashes  through  the  flimsy  sidewalk  and  lies  in 
the  basement  a  corpse.  The  fall  has  broken  his  neck.  The 
mad  flames  rush  onward  and  in  the  fierce  heat  the  crowd 

146 


becomes  panic  stricken  and  flees.     Such  is  the  fate  of  one  of 
the  scores  of  victims  to  the  fire. 

"  On  to  the  lake ! "  was  the  cry  in  the  business  center. 
Whatever  might  become  of  the  marble  and  iron  blocks,  Dear- 
born and  Lake  Front  parks  were  generally  believed  to  be 
secure  from  all  danger  of  fire.  During  the  whole  night  the  most 
valuable  merchandise  from  various  stores  was  piled  up  there 
and  left  in  the  custody  of  reliable  persons.  No  one  thought  it 
would  burn  at  the  very  edge  of  the  lake.  Following  the 
merchandise  came  thousands  of  people  seeking  refuge  from 
the  blazing  streets.  But  the  fire  pursued  them  even  here, 
and  the  property  piled  up  in  the  parks  became  a  prey  of  the 
flames.  The  base-ball  pavilion  in  which  the  tired  throng  had 
rested,  was  attacked  and  flared  up  like  paper  —  the  people 
were  finally  driven  into  the  stormy  waters  of  the  lake  itself, 
and  there  at  last  found  safety.  :;4Awful  as  was  their  position 
it  was  far  more  desirable  than  that  of  thousands  of  North 
Siders  who  were  hemmed  in  on  the  narrow  strip  of  beach 
north  of  the  river,  formerly  notorious  under  the  name  of  the 
"  Sands."  Even  more  dangerous  was  the  position  of  those 
who  shortly  after  midnight  hastened  to  the  steamers,  barges, 
and  schooners  at  the  mouth  of  the  river.  In  this  crowd  were 
many  of  Chicago's  best  citizens  and  the  strangers  who  had  been 
driven  from  the  burning  hotels.  All  believed  the  ships,  and 
especially  the  steamers,  perfectly  safe,  and  no  one  dreamed 
that  this  place  of  refuge  would  later  prove  to  be  the  most 
dangerous  that  could  have  been  chosen. 

THIRD    ACT. 

The  Burning:  of  the  North  Side. 

After  the  citadel  of  a  fortress  is  taken,  .the  conquering  army 
has  little  trouble  with  the  outworks,  whose  garrison  must 
choose  between  immediate  surrender  and  hasty  retreat. 
After  the  strongholds  on  the  South  Side  had  been  devastated 

148 


the  North  Side,  with  its  numerous  light  frame  houses,  could 
offer  no  resistance  to  the  victorious  flames.  So  much  the  less 
so  as  the  water  works,  although  a  mile  from  the  river,  were 
among  the  first  buildings  on  the  North  Side  to  be  attacked  by 
the  fire.  Their  destruction  rendered  futile  all  efforts  of  the 
firemen  to  check  the  great  onward  rush  of  the  flames.  Only 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  north  branch  of  the  river, 
where  it  saved  some  coal  yards  near  the  Indiana  street 
bridge,  was  the  fire  department  at  all  successful. 

The  fact  that  the  North  Side  began  to  burn  in  several 
quarters  at  once — all  being  some  distance  from  the  main  fire — 
gave  rise  to  the  suspicion  that  incendiaries  had  been  at  work. 
This  suspicion  proved  entirely  groundless.  The  origin  of  these 
separate  fires  was  due  merely  to  the  firebrands  scattered  for 
miles  by  the  furious  gale.  The  water  works  began  to  burn 
about  3  o'clock  in  the  morning,  while  the  two  great  steam 
pumps  were  in  full  operation.  Although  the  roof  fell  in  on 
them,  they  were  comparatively  little  damaged,  and  were 
quickly  repaired,  the  larger  pump  being  put  in  operation 
eight  days  after  the  fire.  It  was  due  to  the  heroic  efforts  of 
engineer  M.  Trautmann  and  his  firemen,  McKant  and  Prinsing, 
that  an  explosion  of  the  boilers  and  the  consequent  ruin  of  all 
the  machinery,  was  avoided.  As  soon  as  the  building  caught 
fire  Trautmann  realized  the  great  danger  from  an  explosion, 
and  resolved  to  prevent  it  at  all  hazards.  The  explosion 
would  be  inevitable  if  the  steam  could  not  be  let  out  of  the 
boilers.  The  safety  valves  were  opened  and,  although  the 
building  was  on  fire  in  a  dozen  places,  Trautmann  stood 
before  his  engines  with  his  hand  on  the  regulator — firm  as  a 
rock.  Then  the  ropes  by  which  the  safety  valve  levers  were 
suspended,  burned  off,  and  allowed  the  valves  to  close,  but 
the  men  forced  them  open  again.  The  noise  of  the  hissing 
steam  was  drowned  out  by  the  crackling  of  the  flames  and 
the  howling  of  the  gale.  Those  outside  called  to  the  engineer 
to  save  himself  before  it  was  too  late,  but  the  officer  stood 

149 


true  to  his  post.  The  clothes  of  one  of  the  firemen  began  to 
burn  while  he  was  assisting  his  chief,  but  he  did  not  flinch. 
Cinders  and  fire-brands  fell  around  them  like  hail,  but  the 
men  did  not  desert  their  engines  until  enough  steam  had 
escaped  to  save  the  boilers,  engines  and  machinery  from  total 
destruction.  Then,  half  suffocated,  they  rushed  for  the  open 
air  and  barely  escaped. 

A  terrible  panic  seized  the  North  Siders  when  they  discov- 
ered that  both  gas  and  water  supply  had  been  destroyed. 
There  was  no  longer  a  thought  of  resistance  —  all  fled. 
While  the  history  of  the  fire  on  the  South  Side  is  divisible 
into  different  stages  as  first  one  massive  building  and  then 
another  was  conquered,  no  similar  division  can  be  made  in 
considering  the  devastation  of  the  North  Side.  The  fire  flew 
on  the  wings  of  the  wind,  and  while  the  main  column  was 
still  busy  at  Kinzie  street,  its  advance  had  already  been 
mapped  out  by  various  burning  buildings  over  a  mile  further 
north.  So  powerful  and  solid  was  the  onward  rushing  mass 
of  flames  that  it  was  impossible  for  spectators  to  remain 
for  even  an  instant  in  any  spot  near  the  scene  of  action.  The 
hot,  stifling  air,  filled  with  cinders  and  burning  brands, 
warned  all  to  flee.  Some  wretches  who  had  got  drunk  in 
North  Water  street  dives  were  surprised  by  the  flames,  and 
being  unable  to  run  away  fell  an  easy  prey  to  the  destroying 
demon.  Because  all  fled,  and  no  one  had  time  to  observe, 
there  is  a  lack  of  reliable  information  concerning  the  progress 
of  the  fire.  Uhlich's  block,  on  North  Clark  street,  and  the  big 
breweries  near  the  lake  were  the  only  buildings  to  make 
much  resistance  to  the  flames.  As  on  the  South  Side  men 
deluded  themselves  into  believing  that  the  fire  would  some- 
where suddenly  halt,  and  working  eastward  to  the  lake,  die 
out.  They  could  not  realize  the  terrible  proportions  and 
relentless  fury  of  their  foe.  Over  half  the  total  surface  of  the 
North  Side  was  swept  by  the  flames,  and  10,000  buildings 
were  destroyed.  The  escape  of  the  residence  of  Mahlon  D. 


Ogden,  standing  as  it  did  in  the  very  path  of  the  flames,  was 
remarkable.  The  house  was  isolated,,  occupying  the  center 
of  a  square,  and  was  more  or  less  protected  by  trees.  In  ad- 
dition, the  roof  and  side  walls  were  covered  with  quilts, 
blankets  and  carpets  soaked  with  water  from  private  cisterns 
on  the  grounds.  A  large  number  of  people  assisted  in  right- 
ing the  flames,  which  finally  swept  on,  leaving  the  house  stand- 
ing, a  lone  monument  to  dogged  persistence  and  hard  work. 

Another  but  unsuccessful  fight  was  made  to  save  Unity 
church  on  Dearborn  avenue,  facing  Washington  Park.  It  was 
a  massive  and  expensive  structure  and  on  account  of  its  excel- 
lent construction  and  comparative  isolation,  the  neighbors  near 
and  far  believed  it  perfectly  safe  and  an  excellent  repository  for 
their  valuables.  Robert  Collyer,  the  famous  pastor,  himself 
believed  for  a  time  that  it  would  be  saved.  Together  with  a 
number  of  the  younger  members  of  his  congregation  he  went 
to  work  to  remove  the  wooden  sidewalks  and  everything 
inflammable  from  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  building.  Being 
without  tools,  they  had  to  rely  on  their  hands.  From  the  cis- 
tern of  the  neighboring  house  of  Mahlon  D.  Ogden  water 
was  generously  furnished  to  wet  down  the  frame  work  around 
the  doors  and  windows.  A  part  of  his  books  Dr.  Collyer 
removed  from  his  studio  in  the  church  to  the  middle  of  the 
park.  The  wisdom  of  this  action  was  soon  seen,  for  within  a 
few  moments  the  roof  of  the  church  caught  fire  in  a  dozen 
places  and  began  to  burn  fiercely.  Collyer  saw  that  all  was 
lost  and  immediately  told  those  about  the  church  to  flee,  but  he 
himself  entered  the  doomed  building  once  more  and  brought 
out  the  church  bible. 

The  most  characteristic  feature  of  this  third  act  of  the  great 
catastrophe  was,  as  mentioned  before,  not  the  resistance  to  but 
the  flight  from  the  flames.  As  a  rule,  this  flight  was  merely 
a  series  of  retreats,  the  people  falling  back  to  positions  of 
fancied  security  only  to  be  driven  further  by  the  terrible  blaze. 
Men  seemed  unable  to  grasp  the  fearful  power  of  the 


fire.  Hardly  arrived  at  a  supposedly  secure  point  the  victims 
were  driven  away  again  by  the  persecuting  flames.  Much  of 
the  property  saved  from  the  first  attack  of  the  enemy  was  lost 
or  destroyed  in  these  repeated  retreats  before  the  fire  demon, 
while  the  price  for  cartage  rapidly  increased,  $50  to  $100  a 
load  being  common  charges. 

The  loss  of  human  life  was  particularly  large  on  such 
streets  as  were  suddenly  and  unexpectedly  attacked  by  the  fire, 
as  Chicago  avenue  and  Erie  street.  The  number  of  victims 
perishing  near  the  Chicago  avenue  bridge  has  never  been 
determined.  Early  Monday  morning  there  surged  across  this 
bridge  an  indescribable  human  chaos.  Vehicles  of  all  kinds 
and  sizes,  men  and  women  of  all  ages  and  conditions,  struggled 
across  the  narrow  passage  into  the  land  of  safety.  Finally 
the  bridge  itself  caught  fire,  cutting  off  the  one  means  of 
escape  still  left  to  the  poor  creatures  hemmed  in  by  the  advanc- 
ing walls  of  fire.  Not  a  few  preferred  death  in  the  river  to 
perishing  in  the  flames  and  others  were  pushed  into  the  water. 
Some  tried  to  save  themselves  by  running  to  Bremen,  Town- 
send  and  Wesson  streets  only  to  learn  that  these  streets  had 
no  outlet  and  death  was  inevitable.  Many  of  those  who 
remained  near  the  burning  bridge  were  saved  by  boats,  which 
were  found  and  bravely  manned  in  spite  of  the  deadly  peril  of 
approaching  the  east  bank  of  the  river.  After  the  destruction 
of  this  bridge,  there  remained  only  those  at  Division  street  and 
North  avenue  to  furnish  transit  to  the  fugitives  hastening  to 
the  West  Side.  From  Monday  morning  till  late  Tuesday  a 
constant  stream  of  people  poured  across  the  river. 

Many  North  Siders,  especially  those  in  the  northeastern 
part  of  the  division,  fled  to  Lincoln  Park,  where  not  less  than 
10,000  persons  camped  upon  the  graves  of  the  old  city  ceme- 
tery, then  incorporated  as  a  part  of  Lincoln  Park.  But  even 
in  this  place  of  eternal  rest  there  was  no  repose  for  the 
unhappy  fugitives.  The  fire  suddenly  took  a  northeasterly 
turn,  and  feeding  on  the  masses  of  piled  up  household  goods 

152 


ate  its  way  through  the  cemetery,  and  the  refugees  were  once 
more  compelled  to  flee — this  time  to  the  prairies  to  the  north — 
or  wade  far  out  in  the  rough  and  chilly  waters  of  the  lake. 
In  the  cemetery  all  gradually  grew  still  again,  but  it  was  the 
quietness  of  desolation.  The  ruined  dead-house,  the  crosses 
and  tombstones,  blackened,  burned  and  cracked  by  the  heat — 
even  the  bark  burned  off  the  trees,  which  stretched  out  their 
leafless  branches  as  if  in  despair.  It  seemed  as  if  a  demon 
had  vented  his  rage  on  the  holy  spot. 

Those  who  fled  to  the  prairies,  as  the  flames  rushed  for- 
ward all  the  long  Monday,  suffered  terribly.  Without  protec- 
tion from  the  bitter  wind,  without  food,  or  even  water,  there 
cowered  on  the  bare  ground,  tired  men,  exhausted  women, 
children,  invalids  even — all  hungry,  and  only  a  few  well 
clothed.  The  clouds,  colored  blood-red  by  the  fires  still 
fiercely  blazing  in  various  parts  of  the  burnt  district,  seemed 
to  indicate  that  the  West  Side  had  been  attacked,  and  thus 
an  added  horror  was  lent  a  situation  already  almost  unendur- 
able. About  midnight  the  heavens  finally  opened  their  tardy 
flood  gates,  and — it  rained.  Drenched,  shivering  and  cold 
the  poor  sufferers  hailed  the  shower  with  unspeakable  joy 
and  gratitude.  It  meant  that  the  fire  must  end.  Unfortun- 
ately, however,  the  fearful  exposure  to  the  fury  of  the  elements 
on  the  bleak  prairies  told  on  many  a  vigorous  constitution,  and 
diseases  later  developed  were  in  countless  cases  traced  back 
to  the  nights  of  the  great  fire.  The  crowd  was  motley. 
Every  class,  every  age  and  condition  was  represented — the 
aged,  the  weak,  the  sick,  the  young  and  helpless — all  were 
there.  Several  persons  died  from  exposure  during  the  night, 
and  numerous  births  occurred.  In  short,  life  with  its  endless 
change  went  on,  reckless  of  time  or  place,  or  circumstance. 

ON  THE  «  SANDS." 

Severe  as  were  the  sufferings  of  those  on  the  prairies,  they 
were  almost  insignificant  as  compared  with  the  hardships  and 

153 


anguish  endured  at  the  same  time  by  the  hundreds  on  the 
lake  shore,  between  the  mouth  of  the  river  and  Erie  street. 
When  the  fire  first  appeared  on  the  North  Side,  it  was 
principally  the  western  part  of  the  division  that  suffered  while 
that  east  of  Dearborn  street  remained  unscathed  for  some 
time.  This  was  the  aristocratic  residence  quarter.  The 
houses  for  the  most  part  were  stately  mansions,  isolated  in 
fine,  large  grounds.  Here  lived,  among  others,  W.  B.  Ogden, 
Chicago's  first  mayor,  Julian  Rumsey,  also  an  early  mayor, 
I.  N.  Arnold,  Perry  H.  Smith,  and  other  old  settlers.  Their 
houses  were  furnished  with  elegance,  and  contained  remark- 
ably fine  libraries,  costly  paintings  and  priceless  art  treasures. 
But  all  this  luxury  and  magnificence  no  more  escaped  the  fury 
of  the  flames  tfian  the  modest  homes  on  Michigan  and  Illinois 
streets.  When  the  fire,  after  devouring  Lill's  great  brewery, 
finally  turned  its  attention  toward  this  still  unburnt  portion  of 
the  North  Division,  the  flames  rushed  in  from  the  north  by 
way  of  the  brewery  and  from  the  south  over  Rush  street 
bridge.  All  avenues  of  escape,  except  those  leading  to  the 
lake  shore,  were  shut  off  by  walls  of  fire.  The  shore  in  this 
neighborhood,  stretching  three  quarters  of  a  mile  from  the 
government  pier  to  the  pier  at  Lill's  brewery,  was  the  notori- 
ous "  Sands,"  famous,  when  John  Wentworth  was  mayor,  as 
the  plague  spot  of  the  city.  Now  it  was  covered  with  thous- 
ands of  men,  women,  children  and  domestic  animals  of  all 
kinds.  Trunks  and  household  furniture  stood  in  piles  round 
about,  and  there  were  vehicles  of  every  description,  from 
wheelbarrows  to  great  four-horse  trucks,  each  laden  with 
property  rescued,  for  the  time  at  least,  from  the  flames.  Here 
it  was  that  the  two  extremes  met:  wealth  and  poverty  had 
dwelt  side  by  side  in  the  quarter  of  the  city  that  had  emptied 
itself  upon  this  stretch  of  sandy  waste.  The  aristocrat  was 
elbowed  by  the  pauper,  the  high-born  dame  wept  with  the 
workingwoman,  and  innocent  girlhood  was  ogled  and  insulted 
by  foulest  vice.  The  air  was  full  of  smoke,  cinders  and 

154 


brands  and  the  red-hot  sand  was  blown  about  by  the  furious 
gale  until  breathing  became  almost  an  impossibility.  About 
daylight  the  household  goods  began  to  burn,  and  the  smoke 
grew  so  dense  that  man  and  beast  were  alike  compelled  to 
enter  the  water  to  avoid  suffocation.  Hundreds  clung  to  the 
horses  and  wagons  standing  far  out  from  shore,  and  others, 
with  their  backs  to  the  storm,  stood  unsupported  in  the  waves. 
One  woman,  the  wife  of  a  well-known  musician,  was  separ- 
ated from  her  busband  and  compelled  to  wade  out,  breast 
deep,  in  the  water,  carrying  in  her  arms  a  little  child  and  an 
infant  not  yet  three  months  old. 

Finally  the  immense  lumber  piles  to  the  south  and  south- 
west, along  the  river,  began  to  burn,  and  the  terrific  heat, 
dense  smoke  and  noxious  gases  threatened  the  very  lives  of 
the  fugitives.  Many  succumbed.  Here  a  family  of  sons  and 
daughters  mourned  the  mother,  who  had  just  died  before  their 
eyes,  but  heard  no  word  of  consolation.  An  invalid,  brought 
to  the  water's  edge  on  a  mattress,  breathed  her  last,  but  the 
knowledge  of  her  death  was  received  with  stolid  indifference. 
Not  until  late  in  the  afternoon  did  the  position  of  those  on  the 
"  Sands  "  grow  less  precarious.  At  last  the  fury  of  the  fire 
abated  somewhat,  and  some  of  the  more  daring  ventured  to 
cross  over  into  the  West  Side,  others  made  their  way  out  onto 
the-  pier  and  were  rescued  by  tugs  and  steamers,  but  most  of 
the  unfortunates  did  not  leave  the  beach  until  Tuesday 
morning. 

But  man  himself  added  the  greatest  horror  to  the  terrible 
situation,  as  is  brought  out  with  fearful  intensity  in  the  follow- 
ing description  of  an  eye  witness: 

The  tragedies  upon  the  "  Sands  "  differed  from  those  where  broader  limits  marked 
the  encampment  of  victims  of  the  fire.  The  prairies  seemed  to  give  relief  to  pent-up 
agonies  and  nerve  the  soul  to  silent  endurance;  even  the  park  and  graveyard,  bleak  and 
sombre  as  they  were,  seemed  to  impart  an  atmosphere  of  personal  security,  that  was 
not  possible  upon  the  "Sands."  There,  on  the  scorching  earth,  that  held  the  heat  and 
sent  a  shimmering,  ceaseless  wave  of  blasting  air  and  sand  from  underneath  the  feet, 
parching  the  flesh  and  drying  up  the  fountains  of  blood  and  life,  the  spirit  of  infernal 
revelry  prevailed.  As  in  the  region  of  the  damned,  told  of  by  Dante,  the  evil  nature  of  man- 
kind glared  forth  to  vex  the  tender  souls  of  those  whom  fate  had  sent  into  their  presence. 

155 


Imagine  the  scene  of  the  horrid  drama.  No  possibility  of  escape  — a  raging  fury  at 
the  rear  a  p!t;less  expanse  of  lake  in  front,  a  small  area  filled  with  human  creatures, 
maddened  animals,  delicate  and  refined  women,  pure  and  innocent  children,  the  aged, 
the  infirm,  the  weak,  the  dying,  the  despairing;  young  girls  whose  artless  lives  were 
unfamiliar  with  even  the  name  of  crime,  men  of  well  ordered  lives  and  Christian  minds, 
brutes  in  human  form,  who  were  not  only  ready  to  do  acts  of  crime,  but  whose  pollut- 
ing wickedness  was  rank,  and  cast  off  prison  fumes  upon  the  air.  All  kinds  and 
conditions  and  grades  of  life  —  all  forms  of  death,  from  calm  and  peaceful  passing  to  a 
welcome  rest  to  that  which  follows  in  the  train  of  vicious  deeds.  Here,  huddled  close  and 
helpless,  the  purest  girlhood  was  forced  to  endure  the  leering  of  the  vile,  and  if  a  chance 
protector  spoke  in  her  defense,  the  wicked  laughed  and  jeered  and  cursed  until  the 
stoutest  heart  grew  faint  with  apprehension.  Women  whose  claim  to  womanhood  was 
long  since  lost,  tookfiendish  delight  in  adding  indefinable  shame  and  terror  to  the  misery 
of  those  who  shrank  from  crime.  Think  what  it  would  be  to  place  a  loved  one  in  the 
lowest  haunts  of  vice,  and  there  bend  over  the  death  bed  of  that  failing  friend  while  all 
about  the  din  of  wickedness  was  sounding  in  the  ears.  Increase  the  circumstance  of 
grim  necessity  and  add  the  weight  of  a  consciousness  that  home,  treasures,  everything  was 
gone,  and  this  the  only,  the  enforced  spot  where  death  must  meet  the  loved  father, 
mother,  sister,  friend.  Could  all  the  powers  of  hell  itself  devise  a  keener  form  of  anguish? 
Yet  these  lines  are  drawn  from  actual  knowledge,  and  the  shudder  awakened  at  the 
recollection  of  sights  stays  the  pen. 

The  creatures  who  there  tortured  the  helpless  were  no  longer  human  — vice  had 
dulled  their  moral  instincts  and  despair  transformed  them  for  the  moment  into  demons. 
Their  orgies  were  born  in  malice,  they  delighted  in  their  sins;  they  shrieked  aloud  with 
glee  to  see  the  innocent  rush  from  them  and  plunge  into  the  lake,  that  for  the  instant  the 
sight  might  be  shut  out.  The  dying  were  not  always  comforted  with  the  caress  of  love. 
Upon  a  burned  and  blackened  blanket  lay  the  dead  body  of  one  poor  woman  whose 
babe  lay  by  her  side  crying  in  shrill  alarm.  The  crowd  about  this  type  of  life  and  death 
gave  no  more  heed  than  if  it  was  the  natural  order  of  events.  All  night  the  corpse  lay 
there  untouched.  If  fate  preserved  the  babe,  the  writer  does  not  know  of  the  fact. 
Above  the  terror  of  the  fire— for  that  emotion  grew  pangless  as  the  hours  progressed; 
above  the  loss  of  worldly  riches;  above  the  grief  of  death,  for  death  seemed  then  the 
only  mercy-bringing  power;  above  all  the  conditions  of  the  scene  that  added  elements  of 
horror,  the  mingling  of  the  hvo  extremes  of  vice  and  virtue,  and  the  momentary  triumph 
of  the  bad,  in  their  malicious  show  of  wickedness,  seemed  the  most  appalling  quality  of 
this  immediate  spot. 

Among  the  first  to  arrive  at  the  "  Sands "  was  I.  N. 
Arnold,  with  his  servants  and  children.  He  had  fought  the 
flames  from  his  beautiful  mansion  to  the  last  moment,  and 
when  finally  compelled  to  flee,  he  could  save  only  a  small 
bundle  of  valuable  papers.  All  else  was  destroyed — his  choice 
library,  costly  bric-a-brac  and  fine  paintings.  Arrived  at  the 
lake  shore  he  took  in  the  situation,  and  resolved,  if  possible, 
to  work  his  way  out  on  the  long  pier  just  then  being  com- 
pleted by  W.  B.  Ogden.  This  pier,  which  prolonged  the  left 
bank  of  the  river  out  into  the  lake,  was  not  as  yet  planked  over, 
and  it  was  with  difficulty  that  the  party  clambered  over  the 
rock  filling  to  the  end.  A  small  row  boat  was  found,  and  all 

156 


were  taken  to  the  ligut-house,  lying  beyond  the  pier,  and  there 
they,  with  Judge  Goodrich,  Edward  I.  Tinkham  and  others, 
were  hospitably  received.  Even  here,  however,  the  fire 
threatened  them,  and  a  fire  company  was  formed  to  fight  the 
"flames  from  a  burning  propeller,  which  drifted  past  them,  and 
to  put  out  the  brands  blown  from  the  lumber  piles  further  up 
stream.  About  4  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  the  tug  "  Clifford  " 
rescued  the  prisoners,  and  after  a  perilous  voyage  up  the 
river  landed  them  in  safety  on  the  West  Side. 

A  WOMAN'S  STORY  OF  THE  FIRE. 

*  Telegraphed  to  the  New  York  Tribune. 

CHICAGO,  October  I2th. — Where  shall  I  begin?  How  shall 
I  tell  the  story  that  I  have  been  living  during  these  dreadful 
days?  It's  a  dream,  a  nightmare,  only  so  real  that  I  tremble 
as  I  write,  as  though  the  whole  thing  might  be  brought  to 
me  again  by  merely  telling  of  it. 

We  lived  on  the  North  Side,  six  blocks  from  the  river. 
We  were  quiet  people,  like  most  of  the  North  Siders,  flatter- 
ing ourselves  that  our  comfortable  wooden  houses  and  sober, 
cheery  New  England  looking  streets  were  far  preferable  to  the 
more  rapid,  blatant  life  of  the  South  Side. 

Well,  on  Sunday  morning,  October  8th,  Robert  Collyer  gave 
his  people  what  we  felt  to  be  a  wonderful  sermon,  on  the  text : 
"  Think  ye,  that  those  upon  whom  the  tower  of  Siloam  fell, 
were  sinners  above  all  those  who  dwelt  at  Jerusalem?"  and 
illustrated  it  by  a  picture  of  the  present  life  and  our  great 
cities,  their  grandeur,  their  wickedness,  and  the  awful  though 
strictly  natural,  consequences  of  our  insatiable  pursuit  of 
worldly  prosperity,  too  often  unchecked  by  principle. 

I  came  out,  gazing  about  on  our  beautiful  church,  and  so 
we  passed  the  pleasant,  bright  day,  some  of  us  going  down  to 
the  scene  of  the  West  Side  fire  of  Saturday  night,  and  espying 

*  By  Miss  Cordelia  Kirkland,  now  living  in  California. 
157 


from  a  good  distance  the  unhappy  losers  of  sc  much  property. 
About  5 :3<3  o'clock  our  neighboring  fire  telegraph  sent  forth 
some  little  tintinnabulations,  and  we  lazily  wondered,  as  D — 
played  the  piano    and   I   watered   my  ivy,  what   they  were 
burning  up  now. 

At  10  o'clock  in  the  evening  the  fire  bells  were  ringing 
constantly,  and  we  went  to  bed,  regretting  that  there  must  be 
more  property  burning  up  on  the  West  Side.  Eleven  o'clock, 
12  o'clock,  and  I  awoke  my  sister,  saying:  "It's  very 
singular;  I  never  heard  anything  like  the  fires  to-night.  It 
seems  as  if  the  whole  West  Side  must  be  afire."  One 
o'clock,  2  o'clock;  we  get  up  and  look  out.  "Great  God! 
The  fire  has  crossed  the  river  from  the  south!  Can  there  be 
any  danger  here?"  And  we  look  anxiously  out,  to  see  men 
hurrying  by,  screaming  and  swearing,  and  the  whole  city  to 
the  south  and  west  of  us  one  vivid  glare.  "  Where  are  the 
engines?  Why  don't  we  hear  them  as  usual?"  we  asked 
each  other,  thoroughly  puzzled,  but  even  yet  hardly  person- 
ally frightened  by  the  strange  aspect  of  the  brilliant  and 
surging  streets  below.  Then  came  a  loud  knocking  at  the 
door :  "  Ladies,  ladies,  get  up !  Pack  your  trunks,  and  prepare 
to  leave  your  house.  It  may  not  be  necessary,  but  it  is  well 
to  be  prepared."  It  was  a  friend  who  had  fought  his  way 
through  the  La  Salle  street  tunnel  to  warn  us  that  the  city  is 
on  fire.  We  looked  at  each  other  with  white  faces.  Well 
we  might.  In  an  inner  room  slept  an  invalid  relative,  the 
object  of  our  ceaseless  care  and  love,  the  victim  of  a  terrible 
and  recurring  mental  malady,  which  had  already  sapped  much 
of  his  strength  and  life,  and  rendered  quiet  and  absence  of 
excitement  the  first  prescription  of  his  physicians.  Must  we 
call  the  invalid?  And,  if  we  did,  in  the  midst  of  this  fearful 
glare  and  turmoil,  what  would  be  the  result?  We  determined 
to  wait  till  the  last  minute,  and  threw  some  valuables  into  a 
trunk,  while  we  anxiously  watched  the  ever  approaching  flame 
and  tumult. 

158 


Then  came  a  strange  sound  in  the  air,  which  stilled  for  a 
moment  the  surging  crowd.  Was  it  thunder?  No.  The 
sky  was  clear  and  full  of  stars,  and  we  shuddered  as  we  felt, 
but  did  not  say,  it  was  a  tremendous  explosion  of  gunpow- 
der. By  this  time  the  blazing  sparks  and  bits  of  burning 
wood,  which  we  had  been  fearfully  watching,  were  fast  becom- 
ing an  unintermitting  fall  of  burning  hail,  and  another  shower 
of  blows  on  the  door  warned  us  that  there  was  not  another 
moment  to  be  lost.  "Call  E — "  (the  invalid),  "  do  not  let  him 
stay  a  minute,  and  I  will  try  to  save  our  poor  little  birds." 
My  sister  flew  to  wake  up  our  precious  charge,  and  I  went 
down  stairs  repeating,  to  make  myself  remember,  "  birds,  deeds, 
silven  jewelry,  silk  dresses,"  as  the  order  in  which  we  would 
try  to  save  our  property  if  it  came  to  the  worst. 

As  I  passed  through  our  pretty  parlor  how  my  heart  ached ! 
Here  lay  a  relic  of  my  father's  library,  a  copy  of  a  bible 
printed  in  1637,  on  one  table;  on  another  my  dear  Mrs. 
Browning,  the  gift  of  a  lost  friend.  What  should  I  take! 
What  should  I  leave  ?  I  alternately  loaded  myself  with  gift 
after  gift  and  dashed  them  down  in  despair.  Lovely  pictures 
and  statuettes,  left  by  a  kind  friend  for  the  embellishment  of 
our  little  rooms,  and  which  had  turned  them  into  a  bower  of 
beauty  —  must  be  left?  At  last  I  stopped  before  our  darling, 
a  sweet  and  tender  picture  of  Beatrice  Cenci  going  to  execu- 
tion, which  looked  down  at  me  though  the  dismal  red  glare 
which  was  already  filling  the  rooms,  with  a  saintly  and  wierd 
sweetness  that  seemed  to  have  something  wistful  in  it.  I 
thought,  "  I  will  save  this  if  I  die  for  it,"  but  my  poor  parrot 
called  my  name  and  asked  for  a  peanut,  and  I  could  no  more 
have  left  him  than  if  he  had  been  a  baby.  But  could  I  carry 
that  huge  cage  ?  No,  indeed.  So  I  reluctantly  took  my 
poor  little  canary,  who  was  painfully  fluttering  about  and 
wondering  at  the  disturbance,  and  kissing  him,  opened  the 
front  door  and  set  him  free  —  only  to  smother,  I  fear. 

What  a  sight  our  usually  quiet  street  (Dearborn  avenue) 

159 


presented?  As  far  as  I  could  see  a  horrible  wall — a  surging, 
struggling,  encroaching  wall — like  a  vast  surface  of  grimacing 
demons,  came  pressing  up  the  street — a  wall  of  fire,  ever 
nearer  and  nearer,  steadily  advancing  on  our  midnight  help- 
lessness. Was  there  no  wagon,  no  carriage  in  which  we 
could  coax  our  poor  E — ,  and  take  him  away  from  these  mad- 
dening sights  ?  Truck  after  truck,  indeed,  passed  by,  but 
filled  with  loads  of  people  and  goods,  and  carriages  rushed 
past  drawn  by  struggling  and  foaming  horses,  and  lined  with 
white,  scared  faces. 

A  truck  loaded  with  goods  dashed  up  the  street,  and,  as  I 
looked,  flames  burst  out  from  the  sides,  and  it  burned  to  ashes 
in  front  of  our  door.  No  hope,  no  help  for  property  ;  what 
we  could  not  carry,  we  must  lose.  So,  forcing  my  reluctant 
parrot  into  the  little  bird's  cage,  I  took  him  under  one  arm  and 
a  little  hand-bag  on  the  other,  just  as  my  sister  appeared  with 
E — ,  who,  thank  God,  was  calm  and  self-possessed.  At  last 
the  good  friend  who  had  warned  us  appeared,  and,  leav- 
ing all  his  own  things,  insisted  on  helping  my  sister  save  ours,  and 
he  and  she  started  on,  dragging  a  trunk.  They  were  obliged 
to  abandon  it  at  the  second  corner,  however,  and  walked  on, 
leaving  me  to  follow  with  E — .  '•  Come  E — ,  let  us  go,"  said  I : 
"  Go  where  ?  I  am  not  going.  What  is  the  use  ?"  he 
answered,  and  he  stood  with  his  arms  folded  as  if  he  were 
interested  merely  as  a  curious  spectator.  I  urged,  I  begged,  I 
cried,  I  went  down  on  my  knees.  He  would  not  stir,  but  pro- 
posed going  back  into  the  house.  This  I  prevented  by  entreaties, 
and  I  besought  him  to  fly  as  others  were  doing  ;  but  no.  A 
kind  of  apathetic  despair  had  seized  him,  and  he  stood  like  a 
rock  while  the  flames  swept  nearer  and  nearer,  and  my  entreat- 
ies and  even  my  appeals  to  him  to  save  me,  were  utterly  in 
vain.  Hotter  and  hotter  grew  the  pavement,  wilder  the  cries 
of  the  crowd,  and  my  silk  and  cotton  clothing  began  to  smoke 
in  spots.  I  felt  beside  myself,  and  seizing  E — ,  tried  to  drag 
him  away.  Alas  !  what  could  my  woman's  strength  do  ? 

1 60 


There  followed  another  shout,  a  wild  push  back,  a  falling  wall, 
and  I  was  half  a  block  away,  and  E —  was  gone.  Oh  !  God, 
pity  these  poor  worms  of  the  dust  and  crush  them  not  utterly, 
was  my  prayer. 

How  I  passed  the  rest  of  that  cruel  Sunday  night,  I  scarcely 
know.  Wandering,  staring,  blindly  carrying  along  my  poor 
parrot,  who  was  too  tired  to  make  a  sound,  I  seemed  to  go  in 
a  dream.  Starting  north  to  get  help,  running  back  as  near 
the  flame  as  I  could,  in  the  vain  hope  of  finding  E — ,  bitterly 
reproaching  myself  that  I  had  ever  left  him  for  an  instant,  I 
passed  three  hours  of  which  I  can  hardly  give  any  account. 
I  know  that,  as  I  turned  wildly  back  once  more,  I  saw  the 
beautiful  Episcopal  church  of  St.  James  in  flames.  They 
came  on  all  sides,  licking  the  marble  buttresses,  one  by  one, 
and  leaving  charred  or  blackened  masses.  But  the  most 
wonderful  sight  of  all  was  the  white  and  shining  church 
tower,  from  which,  as  I  looked,  burst  tongues  of  fire. 

Constantly  faces  that  I  knew  flashed  across  me,  but  they 
were  always  in  a  dream,  all  blackened  and  discolored,- and 
with  an  expression  I  never  saw  before.  Very  little  selfishness 
and  no  violence  did  I  see.  *  *  *  *  Some  friend — it  was 
days  before  I  knew  who — took  my  parrot  and  forced  a  little 
bottle  of  tea  and  a  bag  of  crackers  into  my  hand  as  I 
wandered. 

At  last  I  found  myself  opposite  Unity  church.  I  was 
grieving  enough,  heaven  knows,  over  my  private  woes,  but 
I  awoke  to  new  miseries  when  I  saw  our  pastor's  great  heart, 
which  had  sustained  the  fainting  spirit  of  so  many,  freely  give 
way  to  lamentations  and  tears,  as  his  precious  library,  the  slow 
accumulation  of  twenty  laborious  and  economical  years,  fell 
and  flamed  into  nothingness  in  that  awful  fire.  I  turned 
away,  heart-sick,  and  resumed  my  search  for  the  face  which 
I  now  felt  almost  sure  I  should  never  see  again.  A  new  sight 
soon  struck  my  eye.  What  in  the  world  was  that  dark,  lurid, 
purplish  ball?  that  hung  before  me,  constantly  changing  its 

n 

161 


appearance,  like  some  fiendish  face  that  grimaces  at  our 
misery?  I  looked  and  looked  again.  May  I  never  see  the 
sun,  the  cheerful,  daily  herald  of  comfort  and  peace  look  like 
that  again.  It  looked  devilish,  and  I  pinched  myself  to  see  if 
I  was  not  losing  my  senses.  It  did  not  seem  ten  minutes  since 
I  had  seen  the  little  moon  look  out,  cold,  quiet  and  pitiless, 
through  a  rift  in  the  smoke  cloud,  from  the  deep  blue  of  the 
sky.  *  *  *  *  Exhausted  and  almost  fainting,  weeping 
and  sorely  distressed,  I  finally  landed  in  a  friendly  house  far 
up  on  La  Salle  street.  As  I  stepped  inside  the  door,  E — 
appeared,  quite  composed,  and  almost  indifferent.  Burnt? 
Oh,  no;  he  was  all  right.  Did  I  suppose  he  was  fool  enough 
to  stay  and  be  burned?  There  was  D —  too,  if  I  wanted  to 
see  her,  in  the  parlor.  Did  I  feel  reverently  thankful.  Ask 
yourself. 

SCENES  AT  THE  MOUTH  OF  THE  RIVER. 

By  midnight  Sunday  the  down  town  streets  were  thronged 
with  fugitives  from  across  the  river  and  spectators  from  the 
North  and  South  Division.  When  it  became  evident  that  the 
city  was  doomed  the  people  fled  to  the  North  and  South  Sides 
and  the  lake  front.  Thousands  also,  among  them  many  of 
the  guests  of  the  big  hotels,  made  their  way  to  the  mouth  of 
the  river  below  Rush  street  bridge.  Here,  on  the  very  brink 
of  the  stream,  with  the  great  lake  just  beyond,  all  believed 
themselves  safe — the  more  so  as  the  spot  was  shut  off  from 
the  flames  by  the  massive  stone  depot  building  of  the  Illinois 
Central  railroad  and  by  the  substantial  brick  and  stone  ware- 
houses at  the  foot  of  Randolph  and  Lake  streets.  Hundreds 
of  persons  crowded  on  the  vessels  lying  in  the  river,  thinking 
that  if  the  worst  came,  the  boats  would  put  out  into  the  lake: 
and  so  escape  destruction.  As  long  as  Rush  street  bridge 
stood  untouched  hundreds  hastened  across  it  into  temporary 
safety  on  the  North  Side.  But  when  it  burned  those  who 
still  remained  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  were  numbered  by  the 

162 


thousands,  and  not  nearly  all  of  them  could  crowd  on  the 
neighboring  ships.  The  terrible  flames  were  steadily  advanc- 
ing on  the  wretched  fugitives,  and  there  were  no  small  boats 
at  hand  by  which  they  could  gain  the  opposite  bank  of  the 
stream.  Suddenly  the  great  Illinois  Central  elevator  "A" 
caught  fire  from  one  of  the  blazing  pieces  of  wood  that  were 
borne  aloft  by  the  wind,  and  in  an  instant  more  the  whole 
structure  burst  into  flames.  But  a  few  hundred  feet  away 
stood  elevator  "  B,"  and  in  the  slip  between  the  two  were 
vessels  which  would  readily  communicate  the  flames  to  the 
further  elevator.  The  smoke  and  heat  from  the  burning 
building  were  stifling,  and  it  seemed  that  all  those  not  on  the 
vessels  were  caught  in  an  awful  trap.  As  the  flames  had  grad- 
ually approached  the  ships  and  steamers  had  crossed  to  the 
north  bank  of  the  river  so  as  to  be  as  far  as  possible  out  of 
harm's  way,  and  now  when  they  tried  to  get  out  into  the  lake 
it  was  found  that  the  terrific  southwest  gale  bound  them  as 
with  steel  cables  to  the  bank.  Then  it  was — in  that  moment  of 
terrible  need — that  Providence  furnished  a  rescuer.  The  sav- 
ing of  the  vessels  and  people  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  was 
due  to  the  heroism  of  the  captain  and  crew  of  the  tug  "Mag- 
nolia," and  in  those  hours  of  brave  deeds  and  cool  courage 
the  acts  of  Captain  Joseph  Gilson  and  his  crew,  stand  unex- 
celled as  to  bravery,  unequaled  as  to  the  amount  of  good 
accomplished. 

Owing  to  the  heavy  southwest  wind  no  vessels  were  mak- 
ing the  harbor,  and  so  there  was  no  towing  to  be  done.  All 
the  tugs  but  the  "  Magnolia  "  were  lying  up  the  river  in  the 
neighborhood  of  South  Water  and  Wells  streets.  When 
needed  at  the  river's  mouth  the  burning  of  the  intervening 
bridges  prevented  them  from  getting  below  even  Clark 
street.  The  "  Magnolia,"  however,  chanced  to  be  lying  in 
the  Illinois  Central  slip  and  her  steam  was  up.  When  Captain 
Gilson  learned  of  the  enormous  proportions  of  the  fire  he 
resolved  to  leave  the  tug  in  the  hands  of  the  engineer  and 

163 


fireman,  Nicholas  Dutcher  and  Joseph  Sweetman,  and  to 
himself  go  over  to  the  North  Side  to  save  what  he  could  from  his 
house.  So  the  "Magnolia"  landed  Gilson  on  the  north  bank 
and  the  crew  were  given  orders  to  take  her  well  out  into  the 
lake,  where  she  would  be  safe.  In  another  moment  the  little 
tug  was  cleaving  her  way  to  safety.  Gilson  turned  and 
started  for  his  home.  Suddenly,  obeying  an  irresistible 
impulse,  he  looked  toward  the  lake,  and  in  a  second  more  the 
horror  of  the  situation  flashed  upon  him.  Providence  had 
called  this  man  back  for  the  salvation  of  thousands  of  human 
beings.  In  the  fierce  glare  of  the  burning  elevator  he  saw 
the  black  masses  of  humanity  standing  on  the  decks  of  the 
ships  and  the  struggling,  surging  mob  on  shore.  With  the 
quick  eye  of  a  sailor  he  noticed  that  not  all  the  vessels  were 
steamers  and  instinct  told  him  that  even  the  propellers  could 
not  swing  clear  of  the  river  bank  to  which  they  were  bound 
by  the  gale.  All  this  came  to  Gilson  in  the  twinkling  of  an 
eye,  and  scarcely  realizing  what  he  did,  he  shouted  for  his  tug 
to  return.  The  men  heard  his  call  and  obeyed.  Leaping 
aboard  his  boat  Gilson  started  for  the  burning  elevator.  As 
he  went  down  the  stream  he  got  two  life-boats  from  the  har- 
bor master,  and  gave  them  to  volunteer  crews  who  straight- 
way began  the  transfer  of  persons  from  the  south  to  the  north 
shore  of  the  river.  Gilson  himself  transferred  several  hundred 
people,  among  others,  General  McArthur,  then  president  of  the 
Board  of  Public  Works,  and  Edward  I.  Tinkham,  a  promi- 
nent banker.  McArthur  was  hurrying  over  to  see  what  could 
be  done  to  protect  the  water  works,  and  Tinkham  was  trying 
to  save  a  roll  of  money,  almost  a  million  dollars,  from  his 
bank.  But  soon  more  important  work  demanded  the  services 
of  the  "  Magnolia."  Gilson  began  to  tow  out  the  vessels  in 
the  slip  between  the  two  great  elevators.  It  was  hoped  that 
the  flames  would  not  leap  across  to  elevator  "  B."  Soon, 
however,  the  fire  attacked  the  building  from  the  coal  shed 
adjoining,  and  it  seemed  that  nothing  could  save  it.  /  Some  one, 

164 


however,  had  discovered,  on  a  flat  car  near  by,  a  new  steam 
fire  engine,  marked  for  forwarding  to  Racine,  Wisconsin,  and 
had  fired  it  up  and  gotten  it  into  such  a  position  that  water 
could  be  drawn  from  the  river.  Hose  was  at  hand,  and  the 
flames  were  vigorously  attacked.  Just  as  victory  seemed 
certain  the  steamer  stopped  running  for  want  of  oil.  The 
elevator  had  been  shut  down  for  some  time,  and  no  lubricants 
could  be  found  in  it.  The  "  Magnolia  "  was  finally  hailed  and 
Gilson  was  called  upon  to  divide  his  scanty  supply  of  oil, 
which  he  did  willingly.  The  steamer  started  again,  and  this 
time  the  flames  in  the  coal  shed  and  engine  room  of  elevator 
"  B "  were  entirely  extinguished  and  the  great  structure 
saved. 

In  the  meantime  the  immense  lumber  piles  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  river  in  the  yards  of  the  Peshtigo  Company  began  to 
burn.  Lying  near  these  yards  were  the  propellers  :  "  Ira 
Chaffee"and  "Navarino,"  the  steamer  "  Alpena,"  the  barge 
"  Advance "  and  a  Canadian  schooner.  Not  one  of  these 
boats  could  move  from  the  northern  shore  of  the  river,  and 
the  various  captains  signaled  furiously  for  the  "  Magnolia." 
Gilson  first  towed  out  the  "  Ira  Chaffee,"  and  so  preserved  a 
place  of  refuge  for  more  than  a  thousand  persons.  Then  he 
saved  the  "  Advance,"  on  which  there  were  several  hundred 
persons,  among  them  Judge  McAllister. 

On  attempting  to  move  the  "  Navarino,"  Gilson  found  that 
his  boat  did  not  have  power  enough  to  stir  the  big  propeller, 
and  although  he  blew  out  his  government  valve,  (raising  the 
steam  pressure  on  the  "Magnolia's  "  boiler  to  150  pounds,  or  60 
pounds  more  than  allowed  by  law),  he  had  to  give  her  up. 
The  refugees  were  transferred  from  the  "  Navarino  "  to  the 
"Alpena,"  and  "Manitowoc,"  and  with  the  "Magnolia's" 
aid,  both  these  vessels  reached  the  outer  harbor  in  safety.  The 
"Navarino"  and  the  Canadian  schooner  were  now  wrapped 
in  flames  and  Gilson  had  just  time  to  get  a  tow-line  on  the 
propeller  "  Sky  Lark  "  and  start  her  down  the  river,  when 

166 


the  fire  swept  up  to  the  very  spot  where  she  had  been  lying. 
In  addition  to  the  fugitives  on  board  the  "  Sky  Lark,"  were 
many  valuable  books  and  papers  of  the  Goodrich  steamer  line. 

The  flames  were  now  sweeping  the  river  in  one  place,  from 
shore  to  shore,  but  Gilson  turned  the  "  Magnolia  "  back  for 
the  last  time.  Ringing  for  full  steam,  he  sent  his  boat  through 
the  sheet  of  fire  and  came  out  on  the  other  side  unhurt. 
There  he  picked  up  two  policemen  whom  he  found  standing 
in  despair  on  the  south  shore  of  the  river.  Then  the  little  tug 
was  turned  around  and  the  run  under  the  flames  made  once 
more.  This  time  Captain  Gilson  was  not  so  fortunate,  and  the 
woodwork  of  the  tug  was  found  to  be  blazing  in  several  places. 
The  fire  was  finally  put  out,  but  not  until  after  considerable  dam- 
age had  been  done. 

Nothing  now  remained  for  Gilson  to  do  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river,  and  the  "Magnolia'"  was  turned  toward  Light  House 
(or  Ogden's)  slip,  near  where  the  fugitives  on  the  "Sands" 
were  congregated.  Here  again  Gilson's  arrival  was  most  op- 
portune. The  fierce  heat  had  driven  hundreds  of  people  into 
the  lake  near  the  slip,  and  just  as  the  "  Magnolia  "  appeared 
the  schooner  "  Swallow,"  which  had  been  lying  in  the  slip, 
caught  fire,  burned  her  moorings,  and  enwrapped  in  flames 
bore  down  upon  the  poor  wretches  in  the  water.  Before  this 
they  were  almost  suffocated,  and  had  the  smoke  ,and  heat 
from  the  burning  schooner  been  allowed  to  increase  their  suf- 
ferings, the  loss  of  life  would  have  been  appalling.  Three 
hundred  feet  away  iron  railroad  tracks  were  curling  up  like 
shavings  in  the  terrible  heat,  and  now  they  were  threatened 
with  this  burning  vessel  in  their  very  midst!  But  Gilson 
skillfully  approached  the  blazing  schooner,  got  a  line  on  her. 
and  before  it  was  burned  off,  had  the  boat  well  out  of  the 
neighborhood.  Returning  to  the  shore,  the  "  Magnolia " 
began  carrying  people  from  the  water  and  the  west  pier  to 
the  propellers  lying  out  in  the  lake.  His  boat  would  hold  only 
50  or  75  persons,  and  Gilson  was  forced  to  make  repeated  trips 

167  .  ,.'• 


to  get  all  the  fugitives  to  a  place  of  safety.  Large  sums  of 
money  were  offered  him  by  the  wealthy  if  he  would  save  them 
first,  but  the  plucky  captain  showed  no  favor  and  as  before 
refused  all  money  offers  for  his  heroic  work. 

In  the  afternoon  the  "Magnolia  "  made  her  way  back  to  the 
mouth  of  the  river.  It  was  an  exploring  tour  to  discover 
whether  the  city  had  been  totally  destroyed.  Slowly  the  little 
boat  made  the  dangerous  journey.  Near  Rush  street  the 
groans  of  a  man  were  heard,  and  finally  a  poor  fellow  was 
discovered  in  the  river  clinging  to  a  post.  He  was  fearfully 
wounded  and  burned  about  the  head  and  arms  and  had  been 
almost  suffocated  by  the  smoke.  For  eight  hours  he  had 
been  in  his  dreadful  position,  keeping  under  water  as  much  of 
the  time  as  possible,  and  lifting  his  face  up  only  often  enough 
to  breathe.  Gilson  immediately  put  about  and  took  him  to 
one  of  the  propellers  in  the  lake.  Then  he  returned  and  was 
rejoiced  to  find  that  the  West  Side  was  still  unburned.  On 
reaching  South  Water  street  he  notified  the  various  tug  own- 
ers of  the  condition  of  affairs,  and  a  fleet  of  forty  tugs  was 
soon  at  work  bringing  the  people  from  the  vessels  in  the  outer 
harbor  to  the  West  Side. 

The  daring  and  bravery  of  Captain  Gilson  and  his  crew  and 
their  noble  self-forgetfulness,  stand  out  in  white  beauty 
in  the  darkness  and  gloom  that  had  fallen  around  Chicago; 
their  actions  restore  that  faith  in  humanity  which  had  been 
shaken  by  the  story  of  the  pillaging  of  the  South  Side  and  the 
terrible  scene  on  the  "  Sands."  * 


'Joseph  Gilson  was  horn  in  Chicago  in  1846  in  the  old  "Coffee  Exchange."  As  a 
mere  youth  he  gained  celebrity  by  the  reckless  daring  he  displayed  in  saving  the  crew 
of  the  schooner  "Albany"  during  a  terrific  gale,  in  which  none  of  the  thousands  of 
spectators,  who  lined  the  lake  shore,  dared  venture  forth.  The  schooner  was  being 
pounded  to  pieces  on  a  sand  bar  and  Gilson,  in  his  tug,  was  forced  to  make  six  trips  out 
to  her  before  he  could  get  near  enough  to  rescue  the  men.  The  water  was  so  shoal  that 
when  the  tug  3ank  in  the  trough  of  the  sea,  her  stern  post  struck  the  bottom  of  the  lake 
and  heavy  leaks  were  sprung.  Gilson  persisted  in  his  efforts,  however,  and  finally 
brought  off  every  man  from  the  vessel,  which  in  another  moment  was  merely  a  mass  of 
wreckage,  beaten  about  by  the  great  billows.  In  1892  Gilson,  then  in  command  of  one  of 
the  World's  Fair  steamers,  again  saved  the  crew  of  a  wrecked  vessel,  which  he  discovered 
in  the  lake.  At  present  Captain  Gilson  commands  one  of  the  fleet  of  steamers  which 
run  from  Chicago  to  the  World's  Fair  grounds. 

1 68 


ON  THE  PRAIRIE. 

Slowly  and  heavily  rose  the  sun  on  the  morning  of  October 
loth.  The  air  was  close  and  sultry;  smoke  and  vapor  still  lay 
over  the  whole  city.  It  was  a  desolate,  a  heart-rending  scene. 
There  on  the  prairie  lay  many  a  man,  broken  in  spirit,  who 
but  the  day  before  had  fought  the  battle  of  life  with  undaunted 
courage.  But  the  situation  had  already  changed — the  reac- 
tion had  set  in.  After  the  intense  exertion  of  all  the  forces  of 
body,  mind  and  soul,  followed  a  corresponding  relaxation. 
What  had  been  undergone  was  enough  to  severely  test  the 
moral  and  physical  power  of  the  strongest. 

It  had  been  a  fearful  night,  hardly  less  cruel  and  terrible 
than  the  preceding  one  when  the  fire  columns  had  marched 
relentlessly  northward.  Their  danger  had  keyed  the  people 
up  to  the  highest  pitch  of  nervous  tension  but  it  had  passed  now 
and  they  broke  down  helpless.  They  could  have  continued 
their  flight  but  this  awful  quiet  they  could  not  endure.  With 
rest  came  reflection  and  the  thought  of  horrors  undergone. 
From  the  gloom  of  his  present  misery  rose  each  man's  happy 
past  as  in  a  vision,  but  when  he  roused  himself  it  was  to  see 
the  future  barren  and  hopeless  before  him.  With  mental 
anguish  came  worry  as  to  the  uncertain  fate  of  friends  and 
families  and  the  lack  of  physical  necessities  tortured  the  fugi- 
tives. 

Small  wonder  that  many  lost  their  reason,  that  the  eye  of 
many  a  soul  was  blinded  forever;  small  wonder  that  many  a 
life  conceived  the  germs  of  death  during  the  horrible  hours  of 
that  long  Monday  night,  and  that  the  number  of  those  who 
languished  and  died  only  weeks  after  the  fire  was  far  greater 
than  of  those  who  met  death  in  the  flames. 

Twilight  should  have  fallen  about  6  o'clock,  but  on  that  Mon- 
day evening  no  darkness  followed  the  setting  of  the  sun,  for 
great  columns  of  fire  still  illumined  the  scene.  On  the  prairie 
lay  50,000  persons,  who  wondered  if  their  cup  of  misery  was 

169 


not  already  filled.  Was  the  uncontrollable  element  to  leap  the 
river  for  a  third  time,  and  so  return  to  the  side  of  the  city 
whence  it  had  come?  All  eyes  were  turned  toward  the  fire 
which  was  working  its  way  to  the  Division  street  bridge.  It 
was  but  a  matter  of  moments  when  the  flames  would  reach 
the  bridge,  when  at  last  the  long-prayed  for  rain  began.  With 
tears  of  joy  the  multitudes  gave  thanks  for  heaven's  blessing 
— the  fire  ceased  to  spread  and  gradually  died  out.  All  too 
soon  however,  the  wretched,  houseless,  ill-clothed  fugitives 
realized  that  they  were  exposed  to  the  cold,  drenching  rain. 
All  night  and  all  day  they  had  been  scorched  by  the  heat  of 
the  conflagration  and  stifled  by  its  smoke  and  gases,  now  unfed 
and  unprotected,  they  shivered  and  gasped  in  the  down-pour- 
ing torrents.  Side  by  side  stood  the  beggar  who,  having  had 
nothing,  lost  nothing,  and  the  millionaire  rendered  penniless  over 
night.  Wherever  the  eye  turned,  the  same  picture :  wagons, 
laden  with  household  goods,  piles  of  rescued  property,  cows, 
horses,  dogs,  men,  women  and  children — all  huddled  together 
in  the  greatest  confusion.  On  her  trunk  sits  the  wife  of  a  rich  mer- 
chant, holding  in  her  arms  some  saved  trinket,  and  on  her  trunk 
sits  the  wife  of  a  poor  laborer,  and  in  her  arms  holds  the  babe 
whose  eyes  reflect  all  her  happiness  and  all  her  misery.  Happy 
he  who  can  count  his  dear  ones  all.  Many  a  family  is  sep- 
arated to  remain  so  for  days.  The  stronger  had  stayed  behind 
to  fight  the  flames  or  to  try  to  save  property  while  the  weaker 
had  gone  on  in  advance.  In  the  great  throng  on  the  prairies 
search  for  missing  friends  is  a  fruitless  task. 

Meanwhile  the  rain  has  formed  little  puddles  and  pools  of  water, 
and  these  serve  to  moisten  parched  lips  and  cleaving  tongues. 

Dire  necessity  stimulated  as  ever  the  genius  of  invention. 
Tents  were  made  from  carpets  and  blankets,  and  held  up  by 
such  sticks  and  branches  as  could  be  found.  Hundreds  found 
some  shelter  under  sidewalks  and  in  culverts,  and  every  inch 
of  neighboring  houses  and  barns  was  occupied.  But  the 
great  mass  of  the  people  on  the  prairies  was  unprotected. 

170 


They  were  crowded  together,  but  on  the  whole  behaved 
well.  Misfortune  purified  their  instincts.  While  contemplat- 
ing his  own  loss,  no  one  could  forget  that  his  neighbor's  was 
as  large.  All  were  equally  miserable.  After  a  time  the  men 
became  resigned  to  their  fate,  and  later  felt  a  certain  reckless- 
ness as  to  what  the  future  might  have  in  store.  The  women 
distinguished  themselves  by  greater  energy,  and  proved  their 
greater  mental  elasticity.  They  had  their  children  to  care 
for,  and  it  was  ever  the  mother  who,  when  the  camp  fire 
burned  low,  kept  it  going,  or,  when  the  rain  fell  mercilessly, 
covered  her  loved  ones  as  best  she  could — even  with  her  own 
body.  So  the  night  wore  on,  and  before  darkness  fell  again 
almost  every  one  had  found  more  comfortable  shelter./ 

INCIDENTS  OF  THE  GREAT  FIRE. 

Most  of  the  human  lives  sacrificed  to  the  flames  on  the 
North  Side  were  lost  on  Wesson  and  Townsend  streets. 
This,  to  a  certain  extent,  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  these 
streets  were  short  and  narrow,  terminating  abruptly  in  culs- 
de-sac.  As  soon  as  Chicago  avenue  bridge  became  impass- 
able— first  because  of  the  congestion  of  vehicles  there,  and 
later  in  consequence  of  the  fire  sweeping  away  the  bridge 
itself — a  great  many  wagons  and  pedestrians  started  north  for 
Division  street  bridge,  on  Wesson  and  Townsend  streets,  but 
were  caught  in  a  fiery  trap,  from  which  escape  was  almost 
impossible.  Scores  perished;  but  in  almost  all  cases  the 
charred  remains  of  the  victims  could  not  be  identified.  Besides 
those  who  came  down  these  streets  from  Chicago  avenue,  the 
flames  surprised  not  a  few  of  the  persons  who  lived  in  this 
locality.  On  Townsend  street  lived  a  Mr.  Geyerstanger, 
publisher  of  a  German  humorous  paper.  With  his  wife  and 
his  four  children  he  succeeded  in  saving  a  part  of  his  house- 
hold goods.  While  three  of  the  little  ones  and  his  wife  went 
to  the  West  Side  with  what  had  already  been  saved,  he  and 


his  twelve  year  old  daughter  attempted  to  save  some  books 
from  his  splendid  library,  but  the  flames  were  down  upon 
them  before  they  were  aware  of  it,  and  they  were  unable  to 
escape.  Of  the  seven  bodies  afterwards  found  in  this  locality, 
it  was  impossible  to  tell  which  were  those  of  the  unfortunate 
man  and  his  little  girl.  A  neighbor,  named  Hecht,  met  his 
death  in  the  same  manner,  while  attempting  to  save  his  old 
invalid  father-in-law.  When  the  fire  attacked  his  home, 
Hecht,  Aneas-like,  took  the  weak  old  man  on  his  shoulders, 
and  carried  him  from  the  burning  house.  In  the  yard  he 
put  down  his  precious  burden,  and,  as  it  is  supposed  from 
the  position  of  the  bodies  when  found,  returned  to  the 
house  for  some  valuables.  While  inside  he  was  overtaken  by 
the  flames,  and  the  unfortunate  old  man  also  fell  a  victim  to 
the  fury  of  the  fire. 

A  horrible  incident  occurred  near  the  water  works.  Three 
men  had  stayed  too  long  in  the  brewery  near  by  and  on  com- 
ing out  were  forced  to  seek  instant  shelter  from  the  flames. 
They  crept  into  some  large  water  mains  which  were  lying  in 
the  street,  but  the  fierce  heat  of  the  conflagration  turned  the 
pipes  into  iron  shrouds,  and  the  next  moring  the  bodies  of  the 
men  were  found  roasted  almost  beyond  recognition. 

The  loss  of  an  occasional  life  aroused  but  little  attention. 
Alexander  Frear,  a  New  York  alderman,  was  crossing  Lake 
street  bridge,  the  rail  of  which  had  been  torn  away.  In 
front  of  him  was  a  man  with  a  heavy  load  of  clothing.  Sud- 
denly he  noticed  the  poor  fellow  stumble  and  fall  into  the 
water.  The  crowds  on  the  bridge  rushed  madly  on,  and  no 
one  in  the  many  passing  boats  paid  the  slightest  attention  to 
the  drowning  wretch,  who  finally  disappeared,  swallowed  up  in 
the  black  waters  of  the  river.  A  driver  fell  from  the  high 
seat  of  his  heavily  laden  truck,  striking  his  head  OP  the  stone 
street  and  breaking  his  neck — the  horses  dashed  on  and  the 
crowds  passed  by  heedless  of  the  corpse  lying  near  at  hand. 
A  woman  near  the  St.  James  hotel  knelt  in  the  street  holding  a 


crucifix  before  her.  Her  dress  skirt  blazed  up,  but  she  did 
not  notice  it.  In  another  instant  a  runaway  truck  dashed  her 
to  the  ground.  On  another  bridge  the  crushing  mob  lifted  a 
young  girl  from  her  feet  and  literally  forced  her  over  the  hand- 
rail of  the  bridge.  For  a  moment  she  clung  feebly  to  this 
slight  support,  but  was  soon  brushed  off,  and  with  a  despair- 
ing cry,  fell  into  the  water  below.  No  action  to  save  her  was 
taken  either  by  those  in  boats  on  the  river  or  by  those  hurry- 
ing across  the  bridge.  Terror  had  banished  every  feeling  of 
chivalry,  even  of  common  humanity. 

At  the  Sherman  House  three  hundred  guests  were  quartered 
Sunday  night.  Among  them  were  many  ladies  without  escorts, 
and  five  single  ladies  were  sick  in  bed.  Early  in  the  evening  the 
night  clerk  and  his  assistant  had  all  the  valuable  papers  of 
the  hotel  conveyed  to  a  place  of  safety,  and  when  the  flames 
threatened  the  hotel  the  guests  were  all  aroused.  The  ladies 
were  taken  to  the  lake  shore  and  put  in  charge  of  police  offi- 
cers. The  sick  were  put  in  a  carriage  and  started  off,  when 
suddenly  the  clerk  was  seized  with  an  awful  foreboding.  A 
glance  through  the  carriage  windows  showed  but  four  persons 
inside  and  he  knew  there  were  five  invalids  in  the  house. 
Wrenching  an  axe  from  the  hands  of  a  fireman,  and  with  a  cry 
to  his  assistant,  he  rushed  back  through  the  smoke-filled  corri- 
dors of  the  great  hotel.  Reaching  the  door  of  the  room 
where  he  believed  the  fifth  sick  woman  lay,  he  forced  an 
entrance  with  a  couple  of  blows  of  his  axe.  The  woman  was 
there,  sitting  up  in  terror  in  her  bed,  having  had  no  previous 
knowledge  of  the  fire.  The  men  hastily  threw  a  heavy  dress 
and  cloak  about  her,  dashed  the  contents  of  the  water  pitcher 
on  a  woolen  blanket,  and  wrapping  the  woman  up  in  this  and 
protecting  their  own  heads  as  well  as  they  could,  hurried 
down  stairs  with  the  invalid  in  their  arms.  The  clerk  was 
quite  badly  burned,  but  all  finally  reached  the  street.  In  a 
few  moments  more  the  upper  stories  of  the  hotel  had  fallen 
into  the  fiery  embraces  of  the  basement, 

173 


The  saving  of  the  Lind  block,  directly  east  of  the  Randolph 
street  bridge,  was  due  to  the  energetic  efforts  of  Alderman 
Walsh  and  I.  C.  Richberg,  a  well  known  attorney.  These 
gentlemen  saw  at  a  glance  the  danger  the  West  Side  would 
be  in  the  moment  Lind's  block  should  be  attacked.  They 
immediately  organized  a  volunteer  corps,  and  after  consider- 
able difficulty  induced  the  crew  of  the  engine  "  R.  A.  Wil- 
liams "  to  take  their  steamer  from  Canal  street,  where  it  was 
lying  idle,  to  Market  street.  By  keeping  the  exposed  side  of 
the  building  drenched  with  water,  drawn  from  the  river,  and  by 
tearing  down  all  awnings  and  wooden  signs  the  structure  was 
finally  saved.  This  prevented  the  flames  from  crossing  to  the 
West  Side  by  the  Randolph  street  bridge,  but  there  was  also 
great  danger  that  the  fire  would  leap  the  river  at  the  foot  of 
Erie  street,  or  cross  by  means  of  the  Chicago  avenue  bridge. 
The  prevention  of  this  calamity  was  largely  due  to  the  efforts 
of  John  Buehler,  the  banker.  He  took  charge  of  the  firemen 
sent  down  from  Harvard  station  and  of  a  part  of  the  Milwau- 
kee fire  department.  He  also  had  the  local  steamer  "  Chicago  " 
put  on  a  tug  boat  and  in  this  way  secured  excellent  service. 
When  the  burning  tar  from  the  gas  works,  on  the  east  side  of 
the  river,  drifted  across  the  stream,  Buehler  pressed  the 
spectators  into  service  and  extinguished  the  flaming  mass. 
After  all  danger  to  the  West  Side  was  over,  Buehler  took  his 
steamer  to  the  North  Side  pumping  station  to  render  such  aid 
as  was  possible. 

Several  men  on  the  top  of  the  big  Wheeler  elevator  tried 
to  save  it  by  throwing  from  its  roof  the  burning  shingles  and 
brands  which  rained  upon  it,  but  despite  their  efforts  the  flames 
attacked  the  building  from  a  lower  story,  and  they  suddenly 
found  it  necessary  to  flee  for  their  lives.  Four  of  the  eight 
on  the  roof  dashed  through  the  fire  and  smoke  of  the  interior  and 
reached  the  ground  safely;  the  other  four  were  cut  off  from 
the  skylight  by  the  flames.  One  piece  of  the  roof  after  the 
other  fell  into  the  fiery  sea  below,  leaving  smaller  and  smaller 


the  spot  where  the  men  huddled  together.  Repeated  attempts 
were  made  to  throw  them  a  rope,  but  all  failed.  Flames  and 
dense  black  masses  of  smoke  were  now  pouring  from  the  ele- 
vator. At  times  the  men  were  concealed  from  the  view  of  the 
anxious  spectators.  Finally  a  piece  of  brick  was  fastened  to 
a  long  twine  and  thrown  them.  By  means  of  the  twine,  the 
heavy  rope  was  pulled  up  and  the  end  quickly  made  fast.  In 
another  moment  all  were  in  safety — but  none  too  soon,  for  the 
last  man  touched  the  ground  just  as  the  rope,  burned  through 
at  the  top,  fell  in  coils  around  him. 

Besides  the  mansion  of  Mahlon  D.  Ogden  but  one  house 
stood  in  the  burnt  district  of  the  North  Side  after  the  fire. 
This  was  the  little  wooden  cottage  on  Lincoln  place,  belong- 
ing to  Bellinger,  a  policeman,  who  saved  his  property  only 
after  a  terrible  struggle.  He  made  every  preparation  for 
defense — tearing  up  the  wooden  sidewalk,  raking  up  and  burn- 
ing the  dry  leaves  in  his  yard,  and  finally  covering  his  little 
home  with  carpets  and  blankets  soaked  with  water.  At  the 
critical  moment  the  water  supply  gave  out,  but  Bellinger  had 
a  quantity  of  cider  in  his  cellar,  and  with  this  he  kept  the 
blankets  and  carpets  drenched  until  the  fire  had  swept  past. 

The  last  house  to  burn  was  probably  that  of  Dr.  John  H. 
Foster,  on  Fullerton  avenue,  near  Lincoln  park,  which  was 
attacked  at  10:30  Monday  night,  about  twenty-six  hours  after 
the  fire  began.  Some  authorities  give  the  house  of  John  A. 
Huck,  north  of  the  city  limits,  as  the  last  one  to  burn;  but 
the  flames  raged  in  coal  and  lumber  yards  and  in  other  places 
where  there  were  piles  of  combustible  material,  until  far  into 
Tuesday. 

An  unfinished  stone  building  in  the  South  Division,  corner  of 
La  Salle  and  Monroe  streets,  did  not  burn,  as  there  was 
absolutely  no  wood  work  about  it,  even  the  partition  walls  and 
floors  being  of  brick. 

The  scores  of  people,  who  found  temporary  safety  on  the 
old  North  Pier,  were  furnished  with  some  food  by  the  crib 


keeper,  but  this  provision  was  soon  exhausted,  and  the 
prospects  for  a  very  hungry  night  seemed  most  excellent. 
Finally  a  true  American  remedy  was  tried:  a  meeting  was 
held,  with  Judge  Goodrich  presiding.  It  was  proposed  to 
send  a  tug  up  the  river  in  search  of  provisions,  and  all  being 
agreeable  a  tug  was  hailed,  and  twa  young  men  were  sent 
with  an  order  in  blank  from  Judge  Goodrich  and  E.  I.  Tink- 
ham,  the  banker.  Supplies  were  in  this  manner  procured, 
and  the  hungry  hundreds  relieved. 

About  3  o'clock  Monday  morning,  when  the  Washington 
street  tunnel  was  crowded  with  men  trying  to  get  to  their 
down-town  stores  and  offices,  to  personally  satisfy  themselves 
of  their  losses,  and  with  others  trying  to  get  from  down-town 
to  the  unburnt  West  Side,  the  gas  lights  suddenly  went  out. 
The  gas  works  had  exploded,  and  Stygian  darkness  reigned  in 
the  long,  narrow  pathway.  The  danger  of  a  collision  between 
the  streams  of  humanity  running  in  different  directions  was 
the  greater,  as  many  of  the  fugitives  from  the  South  Side  were 
heavily  laden  with  effects  saved  from  the  conflagration.  All 
at  once  a  man  with  remarkable  presence  of  mind  called  out  in 
a  stentorian  voice :  "  Keep  to  the  right,"  which  cry  imme- 
diately passed  from  mouth  to  mouth,  from  one  end  of  the 
tunnel  to  the  other,  and  all  confusion  was  averted. 

Hundreds  of  children  were  lost  during  the  fire,  and  for  days 
afterwards  the  police  were  kept  busy  finding  parents  to  match 
the  various  youngsters  who  filled  the  station  houses.  One 
officer  found  a  baby,  three  months  old,  alone  in  a  blazing 
street.  Two  children  of  H.  Claussenius,  the  German  consul, 
were  separated  from  their  parents,  and  it  was  Wednesday 
evening  before  they  were  heard  from.  A  friend  of  the 
family  had  found  them  and  taken  them  to  his  home  in 
Evanston. 

Property  was  saved  with  the  greatest  difficulty.  A  bank 
officer  got  $600,000  from  his  vaults,  and  had  to  pay  an 
expressman  $1000  to  take  him  to  the  depot,  where  he  could 

176 


take  a  train  for  Milwaukee.  Ex-Lieutenant  Governor  Bross 
saw  a  wagon  standing  in  front  of  his  beautiful  home,  and 
supposing  that  some  member  of  the  family  had  hired  it,  filled 
it  with  the  most  valuable  property  from  his  house,  but  when 
the  wagon  was  loaded  the  driver  quietly  drove  away,  and 
was  never  heard  of  again.  Louis  Ibach  had  just  furnished  a 
new  hotel  on  Wells  and  Randolph  streets,  and  when  he  went 
to  save  some  few  of  the  fine  blankets  he  had  just  purchased, 
he  found  thieves  already  looting  the  place.  On  introducing 
himself  and  good-naturedly  asking  for  a  blanket  or  two,  the 
rascals  gave  him  one  and  told  him  to  clear  ou£/ 

When  the  roofs  of  a  block  of  houses  on  State  street,  near 
Van  Buren,  suddenly  flared  up,  a  ghastly  scene  was  wit- 
nessed. The  occupants  of  the  upper  stories,  anxious  to  save 
their  property,  began  to  throw  things  down  into  the  streets 
below.  Out  flew  books,  pictures,  looking  glasses,  beds  and 
finally,  a  coffin,  containing  the  body  of  a  man.  A  procession 
of  men,  carrying  elegant  coffins  down  to  the  lake  front,  was 
one  of  the  strange  sights  of  the  fire.  They  were  saving  the 
contents  of  an  undertaking  establishment,  but  when  the  lake 
shore  was  reached  every  coffin  was  filled  with  some  tired 
mortal,  eager  to  enjoy  a  few  hour's  repose  in  the  soft  upholst- 
ery. The  appearance  of  these  coffins,  filled  with  sweetly 
sleeping  men  and  women,  presented  a  singular  picture  as 
dawn  broke  over  the  lake. 

Of  course  there  were  ludicrous  as  well  as  pathetic  incidents. 
Before  the  burning  Bigelow  House  an  old  lady  marched  up 
and  down,  shouldering  a  .cavalry  sabre.  Another  old  lady, 
wanting  more  light  on  the  subject,  paraded  through  the 
streets  with  a  burning  lantern  in  each  hand.  The  mania  for 
saving  something — no  matter  what — was  epidemic.  Men  and 
women  were  seen  with  empty  bird  cages,  old  boxes  and  dirty 
baskets,  with  bedding,  tinware  and  wash  tubs.  Women, 
who  supposed  they  were  saving  their  jewel  boxes,  often 
found,  after  a  time,  that  they  were  hugging  some  bundle  of 

12 

177 


worthless  rubbish.  Many  carried  anything  that  v^  .s  forced 
upon  them,  and  one  well-known  banker  was  found  carefully 
treasuring  .a  caM-away  frying  pan. 

A  WALK  THROUGH  THE  RUINS. 

It  was  a  dismal,  wet  morning  which  dawned  on  tht.  unfortu- 
nate, city  after  the  terrible  night  of  the  pth.  A  stiff  north- 
west wind  was  blowing  over  the  still  smoking  ruins,  but  the 
copious  rain  which  had  fallen  had  stopped  the  spread  of  the 
flames.  The  picture  presented  by  the  burnt  district  was  that 
of  gloomy  waste  and  overthrow.  Now  for  the  first  time  the 
immensity  of  the  calamity  was  realized.  When  the  fire  was 
driving  the  fugitives  from  place  to  place,  no  other  thought  than 
that  of  self-preservation  entered  men's  minds.  But  now  the 
poor  victims  could  comprehend  in  its  full  extent  the  terrible 
blow  which  so  quickly  and  unexpectedly  had  fallen  upon  them. 
From  so  small  an  elevation  as  the  top  of  a  wagon  one  could 
see  men  standing  on  the  ground  three  miles  away,  across 
what  had  been  the  most  densely  and  substantially  built  por- 
tions of  the  city.  In  awful  desolation  the  spectacle  was  one 
to  boldly  challenge  that  which  burned  Rome  or  Persepolis 
once  displayed.  Of  the  proud  marble  buildings  that  had 
seemed  built  for  all  time,  there  remained  but  shapeless  piles  of 
debris.  Here  and  there  portions  of  a  church  still  stood  with 
bald  walls  rising  sadly  to  heaven.  Only  with  great  effort  can 
one  work  his  way  through  the  blackened  ruins  which  block- 
ade the  streets. 

,  Yesterday  this  was  South  Water  street.  Here  lay  the 
treasures  of  all  zones,  brought  by  the  ships  of  enterprising 
merchants  to  the  banks  of  the  Chicago  river.  Here  were  the 
immense  storehouses  in  which  the  products  of  the  world  were 
heaped  up.  This  formless  mass  is  wet  with  precious  wine 
from  the  Rhine  and  Burgundy;  in  it,  destroyed  and  buried,  lie 
sweet  fruits  ripened  by  the  sun  of  the  tropics,  the  spices  of  the 

178 


West  Indies,  boxes  of  tea  from  China,  rich  stuffs  from  the 
Orient.  It  is  difficult  to  keep  the  right  road.  Of  the  splen- 
did court  house  the  four  walls  still  stand,  but  "in  the  windows 
gloom  abideth."  Where  but  yesterday  the  hum  of  busy  mul- 
titudes was  heard,  where  deliberative  bodies  held  session, 
where  justice  had  her  seat  and  an  army  of  men  kept  the 
machinery  of  the  local  government  in  operation,  all  is  now 
grewsome  and  deserted,  and  only  the  storm  howls  through  the 
empty  window  openings  and  threatens  to  shake  down  the  tot- 
tering walls.  Clark  street  is  leveled  flat.  From  a  distance  the 
federal  building  seems  still  intact,  and  one  thinks  that  here  at 
last  some  work  of  man  has  defied  the  elements.  Mere  delu- 
sion !  In  the  interior  all  is  burnt  out.  The  walls  stand,  but 
unfit  for  future  use.  Even  the  "fire-proof"  vaults  are 
destroyed.  Only  the  Tribune  building  is  found  to  have  made 
any  real  resistance  to  the  flames.  The  interior  is  completely 
wrecked,  but  the  walls  are  not  damaged,  and  can  be  used 
again  in  the  erection  of  a  new  home  for  the  paper.  With 
the  exception  of  the  walls  of  the  postoffice  and  of  the  build- 
ings mentioned,  nothing  meets  the  eye  of  the  beholder  but 
shapeless  heaps  of  rubbish.  Where  formerly  stately  edifices, 
stood,  signs  are  now  being  put  up  bearing  the  laconic 

inscription :     " —  -  REMOVED  TO — ." 

A  walk  down  Wabash  avenue  seems  a  dream — this  vast 
chaotic  field  was  once  Chicago's  "  Broadway."  The  branches 
of  half-burned  trees  which  once  ornamented  the  Corso  of  the 
Garden  City  and  made  this  street  particularly  attractive,  stretch 
dismally  upward.  Where  is  Michigan  avenue — the  Faubourg 
St.  Germain  of  the  city?  The  overthrown  pillars  which  only 
a  few  hours  ago  adorned  the  palaces  now  strewn  in  dust,  alone 
answer  the  question.  They  have  shared  the  fate  of  the  mod- 
est frame  houses — the  fierce  flames  have  leveled  all.  The 
place  where  once  stood  the  great  hotels,  the  Palmer,  the  Sher- 
man, the  Fremont,  the  St.  James  and  the  others,  are  now 
marked  only  by  smoking  debris. 

i  So 


The  picture  of  the  burned  North  Side  is  not  as  interesting 
as  the  modern  Herculanum  of  the  South  Division.  It  is  more 
pathetic  however,  to  all  who  know  how  many  happy  homes 
once  stood  upon  this  scene  of  barren  desolation.  There  are 
few  picturesque  ruins — the  frame  houses  and  stores  that  haas, 
stood  there  are  swept  away,  leaving  no  trace  behind.  Here 

\* '          s 

and  there  stands  a  wall  of  a  church  or  brick  building — 
everything  else  is  bare  and  level  from  the  river  to  Lincoln 
Park. 

But  already  the  sound  of  the  carpenter's  axe  fills  the  air  and 
strong  arms  are  erecting  little  shanties  in  the  midst  of  the 
fire's  havoc.  American  pluck  and  self-reliance,  undaunted  by 
disaster,  start  out  at  once  to  repair  the  work  of  devastation — 
to  rebuild  a  city.  Men  do  not  await  help  from  outside,  but 
begin  at  once  to  help  themselves.  They  had  built  a  great 
metropolis  on  a  swamp  and  are  now  determined  that  Chicago 
shall  rise  again  more  splendid  than  before. 

Hundreds  of  men  have  lost  everything  and  are  glad  to  earn 
a  penny  in  any  way.  One  man,  dressed  in  the  broad-cloth 
suit  he  had  on  when  the  fire  drove  him  from  his  home,  and 
with  a  pasteboard  sign  fastened  to  his  high  silk  hat,  is  peddling 
cigars,  another  has  dug  up  various  odd  things  from  the  ruins 
and  is  selling  fire  relics.  Here  the  way  is  blocked  by  a  group 
of  men  trying  to  open  a  safe  just  drawn  from  a  basement. 
The  face  of  the  owner  is  a  study.  His  whole  future  depends 
on  the  condition  of  the  contents  of  the  safe — his  money,  papers 
and  valuables.  The  door  is  at  last  wrenched  open  and  in  a 
moment  more  he  sees  the  inside  is  nothing  but  charred  paper 
and  ashes,  wrhich  the  wind  whirls  away  into  the  air.  Then  the 
strain  is  over  and  the  man  knows  he  has  to  begin  life  again 
with  nothing  but  his  two  hands  and  his  own  energy.  One  can 
turn  to  no  spot  in  the  burnt  district  without  finding  evidences 
of  activity,  courage  and  hope.  The  gas  and  water  works  are 
quickly  repaired  and  one  great  source  of  inconvenience  and 
discomfort  is  done  away  with. 

181 


ACTION  OF  THE  AUTHORITIES. 
THE  POLICE. 

On  the  day  after  the  fire  the  popular  excitement  resembled 
a  panic.  For  a  time  most  persons  firmly  believed  that  the 
great  disaster  was  the  work  of  a  band  of  incendiaries.  Vigi- 
lance committees  were  formed  on  the  South  and  West  sides 
and  absurd  rumors  of  the  capture  and  summary  disposal  of 
the  incendiaries  filled  the  city.  Every  citizen  claimed  to  have 
seen  one  of  the  wretches  strung  up  to  a  lamp  post  or  shot 
down  in  the  act  of  firing  a  building,  and  the  newspapers  con- 
tained numerous  rumors  of  the  application  of  "  Lynch  law." 
On  the  West  Side  it  was  dangerous  to  light  a  cigar  on  the 
public  street.  While  it  is  not  to  be  denied  that  various 
attempts  were  made  to  start  another  general  conflagration, 
and  that  several  men  were  killed  for  so  doing,  still  the 
majority  of  the  rumors  of  lynching,  etc.,  were  due  to  the  over- 
heated imagination  of  the  narrators.  When  a  great  disaster 
has  occurred  it  is  but  human  nature  to  seek  for  some  tangible 
object  to  hold  accountable  for  all  the  misery  caused,  and  to 
punish  accordingly.  The  people  demanded  a  sacrifice,  and  as 
they  could  not  call  Providence  or  any  other  abstract  being  to 
account,  they  sought  some  living  creature  on  whom  they 
could  revenge  themselves  for  the  misery  that  had  befallen 
them.  In  consequence  of  this  feeling  among  the  people,  the 
police  authorities  swore  in  1500  special  policemen,  but  this 
force  had  to  be  disbanded  very  shortly,  as  a  number  of 
thieves  and  criminals  were  found  in  its  ranks.  Allen  Pinker- 
ton,  chief  of  detectives,  issued  a  characteristic  proclamation 
informing  the  public  that  the  police  had  orders  to  shoot  on 
the  spot  any  man  who  touched  property  that  did  not  belong 
to  him.  At  3  o'clock  on  the  loth,  Mayor  Mason  issued  his 
first  bulletin  as  follows : 

PROCLAMATION. 

Whereas,  in  the  providence  of  God,  to  whose  will  we  humbly  submit,  a  terrible 
calamity  has  befallen  our  city,  which  demands  of  us  our  best  efforts  for  the  preservation 
of  order  and  the  relief  of  the  suffering,  be  it  known  that  the  faith  and  credit  of  the  city 

182 


of  Chicago  is  hereby  pledged  for  the  necessary  expenses  for  the  relief  of  the  suffering. 

Public  order  will  be  preserved.  The  police  and  special  police  now  being  appointed 
will  be  responsible  for  the  maintenance  of  the  peace  and  the  protection  of  property. 

All  officers  and  men  of  the  fire  and  health  departments  will  act  as  special  policemen 
without  further  notice. 

The  mayor  and  comptroller  will  give  vouchers  for  all  supplies  furnished  by  the 
different  relief  committees. 

The  headquarters  of  the  city  government  will  be  at  the  Congregational  church, 
corner  of  West  Washington  and  Ann  streets. 

All  persons  are  warned  against  any  acts  tending  to  endanger  property.  All  persons 
caught  in  any  depredation  will  be  immediately  arrested. 

With  God's  help,  order  and  peace  and  private  property  shall  be  preserved. 

The  city  government  and  the  committees  of  citizens  pledge  themselves  to  the  com- 
munity to  protect  them  and  pave  the  way  for  a  restoration  of  public  and  private  welfare. 

It  is  believed  that  the  fire  has  spent  its  force  and  all  will  soon  be  well. 

R.  B.  MASON,  Mayor. 

CHARLES  C.  P.  HOLDEN,  President  Com'n  Council. 

F.  B.  BROWN,  President  Police  Board. 

Never  before  had  Chicago  stood  in  so  great  need  of  a 
strong,  firm  hand  at  the  municipal  helm,  and  never  had  a 
more  incapable  man  stood  at  the  head  of  the  city  government. 

In  his  private  capacity  the  aged  mayor  was  worthy  of  the 
highest  esteem,  but  he  could  not  fulfill  the  demands  of  his 
public  position  in  those  hours  of  need.  He  completely  lost  his 
head,  and  no  longer  knowing  how  to  help  himself,  and  cherish- 
ing the  absurd  idea  that  the  ruins  of  Chicago  were  overrun 
with  robbers  and  cut-throats,  he  sought  military  protection, 
"  entrusting  the  preservation  of  the  good  order  and  peace  of 
the  city  to  Lieutenant-General  Philip  H.  Sheridan,  United 
States  Army."  This  act,  contrary  to  the  sovereign  rights  of 
the  State  of  Illinois,  caused  considerable  friction,  as  Governor 
Palmer  had  already  dispatched  to  Chicago  his  adjutant- 
general,  with  several  hundred  state  troops.  Soon  the  control  of 
the  military  proved  an  intolerable  nuisance,  the  more  so  in 
view  of  the  fact  that  exemplary  order  and  quiet  prevailed. 
Among  the  private  citizens  enlisted  for  guard  duty  were  a  lot 
of  youngsters,  with  no  idea  of  the  seriousness  and  responsi- 
bility of  their  position. 

The  culmination  of  the  bitter  feeling  against  martial  law 
was  reached  on  October  2oth.  On  the  evening  of  that  day 
Col.  Thomas  W.  Grosvenor,  a  universally  esteemed  citizen, 


who  had  served  throughout  the  civil  war  with  honor  and 
distinction,  was  shot  and  killed  by  a  Douglas  University  student, 
named  Treat,  who  was  acting  as  guard.  Colonel  Grosvenor 
was  returning  home  about  midnight,  and  when  the  guard 
called  to  him  to  halt  and  give  the  countersign,  he  passed  on 
without  reply*  The  guard  called  to  him  again,  and  as  no 
answer  was  returned,  he  was  shot  down.  Treat  was  tried 
for  murder  but  was  acquitted,  as  the  jury  decided  he  had  acted 
in  good  faith  and  that  the  responsibility  for  the  affair  devolved 
upon  those  who  had  organized  the  body  of  militia,  to  which 
Treat  belonged.  A  lively  correspondence  sprang  up  between 
Governor  Palmer  and  Mayor  Mason  and  President  Grant,  but 
without  definite*  result.  At  the  time  many  people  believed 
that  the  United  States  troops,  which  Sheridan  ordered  to 
Chicago,  were  of  the  greatest  use  in  preserving  order,  but  the 
emergency  was  one  which  the  state  militia  could  have  met 
fully,  and  there  was  not  the  slightest  necessity  for  the  regular 
troops.  The  result  of  the  action  of  the  mayor  in  putting  the 
city  under  martial  law,  was  to  spread  abroad  false  impressions 
of  the  real  state  of  affairs  in  Chicago.  There  was  no  anarchy 
here,  there  were  no  lynching  outrages;  the  people  of  the  city 
deported  themselves  with  the  most  admirable  conservatism  and 
discretion.  The  police  did  their  full  duty,  and  public  recog- 
nition of  their  bravery  and  faithfulness  is  the  more  due  them 
as  there  was  at  one  time  a  tendency  to  make  scape-goats  of 
them  and  the  firemen.  Neither  department  was  in  any  way 
responsible  for  the  great  calamity  which  had  befallen  Chicago ; 
both  had  done  all  that  men  could  do. 

THE  FIRE  PEPARTMENT. 

Owing  to  the  unprotected  position  of  Chicago  on  the  fiat 
prairie,  storms  from  whatever  direction  swept  over  it  with 
full  fury.  This  circumstance  and  the  fact  that,  like  other 
quickly  constructed  American  cities,  it  consisted  largely  of 

184 


wooden  buildings,  so  greatly  increased  the  danger  of  fire  that 
a  most  excellent  fire  department  was  organized.  It  consisted  of 
twenty-one  steamers,  with  the  necessary  hose  carts  and  hook 
and  ladder  trucks.  The  men  had  given  repeated  proofs  of 
their  courage  and  ability,  and  the  populace  placed  the  greatest 
confidence  in  this  department  of  the  local  government.  As  a 
matter  of  fact  Chicago  owes  it  to  the  excellence  of  the  fire 
department  that  the  catastrophe  of  October  8th  and  pth, 
1871,  was  so  long  deferred. 

On  the  day  of  the  fire  the  firemen  did  all  that  could  have 
been  expected  of  resolute,  brave,  efficient  men.  They  yielded 
to  the  flames  only  when  their  clothes  began  to  burn.  During 
the  fire  eight  steamers,  three  carts  and  three  trucks  were 
abandoned,  as  the  men  had  kept  up  their  stubborn  resistance 
to  the  flames  so  long  that  these  machines  could  not  be  gotten 
away  before  the  fire  was  upon  them.  An  official  account  of 
the  fire  and  the  work  of  the"  department  fully  exonerates  the 
men  from  any  cowrardice  or  inefficiency.  In  an  interview  after 
the  fire,  Chief  Fire  Marshal  Williams  said:  "  When  I  got  to 
the  fire,  I  should  think  there  were  six  or  seven  buildings 
ablaze — sheds  and  out-houses.  We  got  it  under  control,  and 
it  wouldn't  have  gone  a  foot  further,  but  the  next  thing  I  knew 
they  came  and  told  me  that  St.  Paul's  church,  two  squares 
north,  was  on  fire.  The  '  Rehm'  stood  on  the  corner  of  Church 
and  Mather  streets,  working  that  plug,  and  it  was  so  hot 
the  engineer  had  to  put  up  a  door  to  protect  himself.  The 
'Gund'  was  on  the  east  side  of  the  church,  and  the  'Coventry' 
on  the  north.  *  *  *  *  The  next  thing  I  knew  the  fire 
was  in  Bateham's  planing  mill.  When  I  got  there  I  found 
that  the  match  factory  was  going,  as  was  the  lumber  just 
north  of  it.  We  got  two  streams  in  there,  but  couldn't  do 
any  good,  as  the  fire  was  thick  and  heavy,  and  ran  along  to 
another  lumber  yard,  north,  and  spread  east  to  the  old  red 
mill.  I  went  north  to  head  it  off,  and  found  it  was  down  to 
Harrison  street.  Commissioner  Chadwick  came  to  me,  and 

185 


said:  '  Don't  you  know  the  fire  is  ahead  of  you?'  I  told  him 
it  was  getting  ahead  of  me  in  spite  of  all  I  could  do;  it  was 
just  driving  me  right  along.  I  got  down  to  Van  Buren  street 
and  was  working  the  engines  there,  but  it  was  so  hot  the 
men  were  obliged  to  run  for  their  lives,  leaving  their  hose  on 
the  ground.  They  came  to  me  and  asked  what  they  were  to 
do  about  hose.  I  said,  '  God  only  knows.' 

We  got  the  '  Gund  '  located  at  the  corner  of  Van  Buren 
and  Canal  streets.  *  *  *  *  The  flames  rolled  over  the 
men  who  were  with  the  engine  on  the  corner,  and  I  told  the 
foreman  to  get  her  out  or  we  would  lose  her.  I  asked  some 
citizens  to  help,  and  we  ran  up  to  uncouple  the  suction  from 
the  plug,  and  others  commenced  to  uncouple  the  hose.  Just 
then  a  wave  of  flame  came  rolling  over  the  street,  and  I  was 
obliged  to  get  away.  Hose  was  afterwards  attached  to  the 
axle  of  the  '  Gund,'  and  the  citizens  pulled  her  up  on  the  side- 
walk, where  she  was  burned  up. 

"  I  met  Alex.  McGonigle,  fireman  of  the  '  Long  John,'  and 
he  told  me  there  was  a  fire  on  the  South  Side.  I  told  him  to 
go  for  it,  and  I  jumped  on  a  hose  cart  and  went  over  too.  I 
got  the  '  Economy  '  to  work  on  the  corner  of  Washington  and 
La  Salle  streets  and  lead  the  hose  in  through  the  stairway 
opposite.  We  were  not  in  there  three  minutes  before  a  sheet 
of  flames  rolled  over  us  and  the  boys  dropped  the  pipe  and 
ran  for  their  lives.  The  wind  was  blowing  so  hard  that  the 
water  would  not  go  ten  feet  from  the  nozzle  of  the  pipe.  We 
could  not  strike  a  second  story  window.  I  then  went  to  work 
and  got  my  two  engines  to  play  on  the  Sherman  house.  I 
thought  we  would  be  able  to  save  it  on  account  of  the  open 
space  opposite.  But,  my  God!  there  was  a  piece  of  board 
six  feet  long  that  came  over  and  landed  right  on  top  of  the 
old  Tribune  building  on  Clark  street,  and  it  was  not  two  min- 
utes before  that  row  was  on  fire.  While  I  was  wetting  down  the 
Sherman  house,  I  heard  that  the  water  works  were  on  fire.  I 
jumped  into  my  wagon  and  drove  over  to  see  if  it  was  true, 

1 86 


and  when  I  got  near  there  I  saw  that  the  roof  was  all  on  fire, 
and  the  flames  rolling  out  of  every  opening  of  the  building. 
I  saw  that  the  fate  of  the  city  was  sealed,  that  we  could  no 
more  save  the  North  than  the  South  Side." 

The  facts  here  given  will  prove  to  those  who  did  not  wit- 
ness the  catastrophe,  that  nothing  but  a  cloud  burst  or  the  ces- 
sation of  the  hurricane  could  have  checked  the  flames.  The 
water  works  were  a  mile  from  the  Sherman  house,  but  both 
were  on  fire  at  the  same  time.  Even  the  strongest  and  best 
fire  department  must  yield  to  a  gale  which  carries  burning 
brands  for  miles  and  scatters  them  on  frame  houses  that  a  long 
continued  drouth  has  turned  to  tinder. 

LOSSES  AND  INSURANCE. 

The  losses  occasioned  by-  the  great  fire  were  enormous — 
Chicagoesque.  To  give  the  area  of  the  burnt  district, 
the  number  of  houses  destroyed  or  of  persons  rendered 
homeless,  affords  but  little  idea  of  the  enormity  of  the  catas- 
trophe. Although,  for  example,  the  burned  buildings  were 
less  than  a  third  of  the  whole  number  of  buildings  in  the  city 
— 17,450  burning  and  42,000  remaining — still  the  value  of  the 
ones  destroyed  equaled  that  of  those  which  were  uninjured. 

The  most  authentic  report  as  to  the  area  burned  over  and 
the  amount  of  property  destroyed,  states  that  in  the  West 
Side,  where  the  fire  originated,  the  number  of  acres  burned 
over  was  194.  There  were  500  buildings,  mostly  of  an 
inferior  class,  destroyed,  which  were  inhabited  by  about  2500 
persons.  The  burned  area  in  the  South  Division  comprised 
460  acres.  This  district,  though  comparatively  small  in 
extent,  was  the  business  center  of  the  city.  It  contained  a 
majority  of  those  structures  which  were  costly  and  magnificent, 
and  were  filled  with  the  merchandise  which  made  the  city 
the  great  emporium  of  the  northwest.  All  the  wholesale  stores 
of  considerable  magnitude,  the  daily  and  weekly  newspaper 

187 


offices,  the  principal  hotels,  the  public  halls  and  places  ot 
amusement,  the  great  railroad  depots  and  a  large  number  of 
the  most  splendid  residences,  in  short,  the  great  bulk  of  the 
wealth  and  the  chief  interests  of  the  city  were  located  in  this 
district.  In  this  division  alone,  there  were  3650  buildings 
destroyed,  which  included  1600  stores,  28  hotels,  60  manu- 
facturing establishments  and  the  homes  of  about  22,000  peo- 
ple. In  the  North  Division,  not  less  than  1470  acres  were 
swept  by  the  flames,  destroying  13,300  buildings — the  homes 
of  75,000  people,  about  600  stores  and  TOO  manufacturing 
establishments. 

The  total  area  burned  over  in  the  city  including  streets,  was 
2124  acres,  or  nearly  3^  square  miles.  This  area  contained 
about  73  miles  of  streets,  18,000  buildings  and  the  homes  of 
100,000  people. 

The  loss  on  buildings  amounted  to  $53,080,000;  on  produce, 
$5,262,000;  on  merchandise,  not  produce, $78, 700,000;  on  per- 
sonal property,  $58,710,000;  miscellaneous  losses,  $378,000; 
making  a  grand  total  of  $196,000,000.  In  foundations  and 
available  building  material  there  was  a  salvage  estimated  at 
$  10,000,000.  The  municipal  losses — city  hall,  bridges,  sewers, 
water  works,  mains,  etc.,  police  and  fire  department  buildings 
and  sidewalks — amounted  to  $2,415,180. 

Eighty  of  the  destroyed  business  blocks  had  been  worth 
$8,515,000;  the  value  of  the  burnt  railroad  depots,  warehouses 
and  Chamber  of  Commerce  was  $2,700,000;  of  the  hotels, 
$3,100,00,  and  of  the  churches  and  contents,  $3,000,000.  Of 
the  church  losses  the  Catholics  suffered  to  the  extent  of 
$1,350,000;  the  Methodists,  $355,000;  Baptists,  $80,000; 
Episcopalians,  $337,500;  Presbyterians,  $465,000;  Unitarians, 
$175,000,  and  the  various  Jewish  synagogues,  $55,000. 

Of  Chicago's  total  loss  of  almost  $200,000,000,  about  $5<V 
000,000  was  made  good  by  the  insurance  companies.  The 
great  eastern  companies  discharged  their  obligations  promptly 
and  paid  dollar  for  dollar;  but  the  Illinois,  and  especially  the 

1 88 


local  Chicago  compares  made  a  wretched  showing.  The 
poorer  classes  had  insured  in  these  local  companies  and  received, 
on  an  average,  less  than  10  per  cent  of  the  value  of  their 
policies. 

In  addition  to  the  insurance,  Chicago  received  large  contri- 
butions of  both  money  and  supplies.  The  whole  world  showed 
its  sympathy  and  kindly  interest.  While  the  fire  was  still  burn- 
ing relief  trains  were  on  their  way  to  the  unfortunate  city.  At 
7  o'clock  Monday,  October  pth,  two  car  loads  of  provisions 
arrived  in  Chicago  from  Milwaukee.  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  St. 
Louis  and  New  York  followed  suit.  Not  since  the  fall  of 
Fort  Sumter  had  the  heart  of  the  nation  been  so  touched. 
More  than  10,000  meetings  were  held  in  behalf  of  the  fire  suf- 
ferers. The  governors  of  the  various  states  issued  proclama- 
tions and  relief  committees  were  organized  over  the  whole 
Union.  It  was  through  the  wonderful  instrumentality  of  the 
press  that  the  sympathy  of  the  nation  was  so  forcibly  appealed 
to.  As  men  ate  their  breakfast,  dinner  or  supper,  they  read 
the  dispatches  in  the  papers  which  told  them  that  at  that  very 
minute  100,000  of  their  fellow-men  were  wandering  comfort- 
less, shelterless  and  destitute  over  the  still  smoking  ruins  of 
their  homes.  Of  the  hundreds  of  eloquent  appeals  made  in 
Chicago's  behalf,  the  following  delivered  in  Faneuil  Hall  in 
Boston,  by  Edward  Everett  Hale,  is  typical: 

MR.  MAYOR  AND  GENTLEMEN:— It  is  but  a  single  word  that  I  have  to  say  here.  I 
have  simply  to  remind  you  that  this  is  no  mere  matter  of  voting  in  which  we  are  engaged. 
I  have  to  remind  you  that  these  people,  our  people  in  Chicago,  by  their  munificence,  by 
their  generosity,  by  their  strength,  by  their  public  spirit,  have  made  us  debtors  to  them 
all.  There  is  not  a  man  here  the  beef  upon  whose  table  yesterday  was  not  the  cheaper 
to  him  because  these  people  laid  out  that  world-renowned  and  wonderful  system  of 
stock-yards.  There  is  not  a  man  here  the  bread  upon  whose  table  was  not  also  cheaper 
because  these  people  in  the  very  beginning  of  their  national  existence  invented  and 
created  that  marvelous  system  for  the  delivery  of  grain,  which  is  the  model  of  the  world. 
And  remember  that  they  were  in  a  position  where  they  might  have  said,  that  they  held 
a  monopoly.  They  commanded  the  only  harbor  for  the  shipping  of  the  five  greatest 
states  of  America  and  of  the  world,  and  in  that  position  they  have  devoted  themselves 
now  for  a  generation  to  the  steady  improvement,  by  every  method  in  their  power,  of  the 
means  by  which  they  were  going  to  answer  the  daily  prayer  of  every  child  to  God,  when 
we  pray  that  He  will  give  us  our  daily  bread.  We  call  it  their  misfortune.  It  is  our  mis- 
fortune. We  are  all,  as  it  has  been  said,  linked  together  in  a  solidarity  of  the  nation. 
Their  loss  is  no  more  theirs  than  it  is  ours.  In  this  great  campaign  of  peace,  in  which  we 

189 


are  engaged,  there  has  fallen,  by  this  calamity, one  of  our  noble  fortresses.  Its  garrison  is 
without  munitions.  It  is  for  us,  at  the  instant,  to  re-construct  that  fortress  an J  to  see  that 
its  garrison  is  as  well  placed  as  it  was  before,  in  our  service.  Undoubtedly  it  is  a  great 
enterprise,  but,  as  our  friend  has  said,  we  can  trust  them  for  that.  We  are  all  fonJ  of 
speaking  of  the  miracle  by  which  there  in  the  desert  there  was  created  this  great  city. 
The  rod  of  some  prophet  struck  it,  you  say,  and  the  city  flowed  from  the  rock.  Who  was 
the  prophet?  What  was  the  rock? 

It  was  the  American  people  who  determined  that  the  city  should  be  there,  and  that  it 
should  rightly  and  wisely  and  in  the  best  way  distribute  food  to  a  world.  The  American 
people  has  that  duty  to  discharge  again.  I  know  that  these  numbers  are  large  numbers. 
I  know  that  when  we  read  in  the  newspapers  of  the  destruction  of  a  hundred  million 
dollars  worth  of  property,  those  figures  are  so  large  that  we  can  hardly  apprehend  them. 
But  the  providence  of  God  has  taught  us  to  deal  with  larger  figures  than  those,  and 
when,  now  not  many  years  ago,  it  became  necessary  for  this  country  to  spend  not  one 
hundred,  not  one  thousand  millions,  but  more  than  one  thousand  millions  of  dollars  in  a 
great  enterprise,  which  God  gave  this  country  in  the  duty  of  war— this  country  met  its 
obligations.  And  now  that  in  a  single  year  we  have  to  re-construct  one  of  the  fortresses 
of  peace,  I  do  not  fear  that  this  country  will  be  backward  in  its  duty.  It  has  been  truly 
said,  that  the  first  duty  of  all  of  us  is  that  the  noble  pioneers  in  the  duty  that  God  has 
placed  in  their  hands,  who  are  burned  and  suffering,  shall  have  food ;  that  by  telegraph 
and  railroad  they  shall  know  that  we  are  rushing  to  their  relief;  that  their  homeless  shall 
be  under  shelter,  and  their  naked  clothed;,  that  those  who,  this  forty-eight  hours,  have 
felt  as  if  they  were  deserted,  should  know  that  they  have  friends  everywhere  in  God's 
world.  As  God  is  pleased  to  order  this  world,  there  is  no  partial  evil,  but  from  that 
partial  evil  is  reached  the  universal  good.  The  fires,  which  our  friends  have  seen  sweep- 
ing their  western  horizon  over  the  plains  in  the  desolate  autumn,  only  bring  forth  the 
blossoms  and  the  richness  of  the  next  spring  and  the  next  summer. 

I  can  well  believe  that  on  that  terrible  night  of  Sunday  and  all  through  the  hours  of 
yesterday,  as  those  noble  people,  as  those  gallant  workingmen  threw  upon  the  flames  the 
water  that  their  noble  works— the  noblest  that  America  has  seen— enabled  them  to  hurl 
upon  the  enemy,  that  they  must  have  imagined  that  their  work  was  fruitless ;  that  it  was 
lost  toil  to  see  that  stream  of  water  playing  into  the  molten  mass  and  melt  into  steam, 
and  rise  innocuous  into  the  heavens.  It  may  well  have  seemed  that  their  work  was 
wasted,  but  it  is  sure  that  evil  shall  work  out  its  own  end,  and  the  mists  that  rose  from  the 
conflagration  were  gathered  together  for  the  magnificent  tempest  of  last  night,  which, 
falling  upon  those  burning  streets,  has  made  Chicago  a  habitable  city  to-day.  See  that 
the  lesson  for  this  community,  see  that  the  lesson  for  us  who  are  here,  that  the  horror 
and  the  tears,  with  which  we  read  the  dispatches  of  yesterday,  shall  send  us  out  to 
ministries  of  truth  and  bounty  and  benevolence  to-day. 

The  work  of  properly  caring  for  the  donations  which  came 
pouring  into  the  city,  and  of  distributing  the  money  and  sup- 
plies among  the  needy  and  worthy,  assumed  so  great  propor- 
tions that  on  October  i3th,  Mayor  Mason  turned  the  whole 
thing  over  to  the  Chicago  Relief  and  Aid  Society — a  local 
organization  long  established,  and  possessing  in  the  highest 
degree  the  confidence  of  all  classes  of  citizens.  At  first  the 
homeless  were  sheltered  in  the  churches  and  school  houses  of 
the  unburnt  portions  of  the  city  and  suburbs  and  in  the  tents 
furnished  by  the  national  government  and  "state  authorities. 

190 


As  soon  as  possible  the  Relief  and  Aid  Society  began  the 
erection  of  cheap  frame  houses  for  the  poor,  and  by  Novem- 
ber 17,  5226  houses  were  put  up.  The  Ladies'  Relief 
Society  co-operated  with  the  general  society  and  rendered 
most  efficient  services. 

Within  the  first  three  months  after  the  fire  over  $4,200,000 
was  contributed  to  Chicago  sufferers  as  a  practical  expression 
of  the  sympathy  of  the  world.  These  contributions  came  not 
only  from  the  United  States  and  Canada,  but  from  Europe 
and  even  Africa,  Japan  and  India.  The  Common  Council  of 
London  voted  1,000  guineas,  and  the  great  London  bankers 
and  railroads  sent  $35,000.  The  Liverpool  Chamber  of 
Commerce  voted  $25,000,  and  Edinburg,  Berlin  and  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main  contributed  generously 

Of  the  larger  American  donations  may  be  mentioned  the 
following:  A.  T.  Stewart,  of  New  York,  $50,000;  Brooklyn, 
$100,000;  New  York  Stock  Exchange,  $50,000;  District  of 
Columbia,  $100,000;  President  Grant,  $1000;  London,  Can- 
ada, $5,000;  Kansas  City, ,  $26,000;  Montreal,  $20,000; 
Toronto,  $10,000;  St.  Louis,  $300,000;  Boston,  $400,000; 
Pittsburg,  $300,000;  Buffalo,  $100,000;  Cincinnati,  $225,000; 
Rochester,  N.  Y.,  $70,000;  San  Francisco,  $100,000;  New 
Orleans,  $30,000;  Philadelphia  $260,000;  Baltimore,  $200,- 
ooo;  Indianapolis,  $75,000;  Portland,  Oregon,  $20,000; 
Quincy,  111.,  $15,000;  Newark,  N,  J.,  $30,000;  Trenton,  N.  J., 
$17,000;  Bloomington,  111.,  $15,000;  Erie,  Pa.,  $15,000; 
Detroit,  $30,000;  Lancaster,  Pa.,  $25,000. 

From  the  State  of  Illinois,  the  Chicago  authorities  received 
$3,000,000 — a  sum  large  enough  to  again  organize  the  public 
works  and  police  and  fire  departments.  The  spirit  of  the  peo- 
ple may  be  judged  from  the  fact,  that  within  six  weeks  after 
the  fire  212  permanent  stone  and  brick  buildings  were  in  course 
of  erection  in  the  South  Division  alone. 

Typical  of  the  mood  of  the  people  were  the  brave  words 
which  Robert  L.  Collier,  pastor  of  the  Church  of  the  Messiah, 

191 


uciivered  the  week  after  the  lire.  After  scouting  the  idea, 
advanced  by  certain  fanatics,  that  Chicago  had  been  visited  by 
the  wrath  of  God  on  account  of  her  sins,  he  concluded  with 
these  words : 

What  is  lost  ?  First,  our  homes.  Thousands  of  families  are  homeless  and  penni- 
less. Second,  our  business.  This  is  temporary.  Third,  our  money.  This  is  a  great 
misfortune,  but  one  Which  we  can  repair.  We  have  not  lost — First,  our  geography. 
Nature  called  the  lakes,  the  forests,  the  prairies  together  in  convention  long  before  we 
were  born,  and  they  decided  that  on  this  spot,  a  great  city  should  be  built  The  railroads 
and  energetic  men  have  aided  in  fulfilling  the  prophecy.  Second,  we  have  not  lost  our 
men  noble,  generous,  and  of  genius.  Third,  we  have  not  lost  our  hope.  The  city  is 
to  beat  once  rebuilt,  and  "  the  glory  of  the  latter  house  shall  be  greater  than  that  of  the 
former." 

Rev.  Dr.  Robert  Collyer,  of  Unity  church,  also  met  his 
people  the  Sunday  after  the  fire.  Their  church  was  burned,  but 
they  met  fronting  the  ruins,  sang  some  hymns,  read  a  few  pass- 
ages from  the  bible  and  formally  resolved  to  rebuild  their  beloved 
church.  In  a  recent  letter  to  a  friend  making  inquiry  as  to  what 
he  had  said  on  that  gloomy  Sunday,  Dr.  Collyer  replied:  "I 
doubt  if  there  was  any  true  report  of  the  words  I  said — or  could 
be,  because  so  much  of  it  came  thick  through  the  pain  and 
tears.  But  we  grew  cheerful,  I  remember,  before  we  got 
through  and  went  home  with  our  heads  up,  and  our  hearts  made 
good  our  resolutions,  and  the  last  dollar  of  the  debt  was  paid 
when  I  left  Chicago." 


Chicago's  Architectural  Development. 

THE    FIRST   STAGE— TO    1853. 

The  following  article  on  the  architecture  of  Chicago  was 
written  expressly  for  this  book,  by  Frederick  Baumann,  in  a 
double  sense  one  of  the  city's  first  architects. 

The  earliest  survey  record  as  to  a  settlement  near  Fort 
Dearborn  bears  date  of  August  4,  1830.  It  was  made  for  the 
canal  commission,  by  James  Thompson,  and  shortly  afterwards 
was  used  as  a  record  for  the  incorporation  of  the  village. 

The  accompanying  chart  shows  a  plan  of  this  "  original 
town."  The  site  is  flat — generally,  but  three  to  four  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  lake;  near  and  parallel  to  .the  shore  of 
which  is  a  sandy  ridge,  with  an  added  height  of  five  or  six 
feet.  Before  the  construction  of  piers  and  other  shore  protec- 
tions, this  ridge,  as  a  product  of  the  water's  motion,  was  ever 
subject  to  change,  being  increased  at  shielded  places  and 
broken  into  at  others  by  the  violence  of  the  rolling  waves. 
The  bi-forked  Chicago  river  is,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  but  a 
narrow  bayou,  with  standing  water.  It  has  no  current  from 
any  source  beyond  the  occasional  floods  produced  by  heavy 
rains  or  melting  snows.  But  these  occasional  floods  may  be 
severe  and  destructive,  for  the  area  of  level  ground  about 
Chicago,  inclusive  of  that  tributary  to  the  upper  course  of  the 
neighboring  Des  Plaines  river,  comprises  fully  seven  hundred 
square  miles.  Sometimes  heavy  snows  fall,  and  do  not  melt 
until  the  latter  part  of  March.  This  was  the  case  about  the 
middle  of  the  8o's,  but  nature  was  gracious.  The  spring  was 
backward,  the  snow  melted  slowly,  and  over  a  week  elapsed 
before  all  the  water  had  run  into  the  lake.  As  a  result  no 
serious  damage  was  done,  the  high  water  not  assuming  the 

13 

193 


proportions  of  a  flood.  In  1849  however,  under  similar  con- 
ditions, spring  began  with  a  sudden,  warm  rain,  and  melted  in 
twenty-four  hours  the  masses  of  snow  with  which  the  plains 
were  covered.  The  consequence  was  a  terrific  rush  of  water 
through  the  narrow  channel  of  the  river,  which  overflowed 
its  banks  and  carried  away,  not  only  all  the  vessels  lying  in 
the  stream,  but  even  the  bridges  which  spanned  it.  Every- 
thing was  swept  clean  by  the  flood,  which,  if  repeated  to-day — 
and  what  is  there  to  prevent  its  recurrence? — would  destroy 
millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  property.  The  present  Drainage 
Board  is,  however,  giving  attention  to  this  problem,  and,  when 
the  drainage  channel  is  completed,  it  is  understood  that  ample 
provision  will  have  been  made  for  these  flood  waters. 

Chicago's  first  actual  settlement  was  upon  the  sands  of  the 
north  bank  of  the  river.  Later — in  1845  or  thereabouts — a 
large  hotel  was  erected  on  the  spot.  It  was  built  of  brick,  and 
stood  as  a  landmark  until  destroyed  by  the  great  fire.  Many 
smaller  buildings  had  been  erected  on  both  sides  of  the  river, 
some  of  brick,  two  or  three  stories  in  height,  but  the  greater 
part  of  them  small  frame  houses.  It  was  the  general  custom 
to  construct  the  frame  buildings  of  scantling  and  boards,  in  the 
so-called  "  balloon-frame  "  fashion,  as  distinguished  from  the 
heavy  timber  frame,  in  use  in  the  old  country.  The  "  balloon- 
frame  "  is  distinctively  an  American  invention,  saving  material, 
and,  above  all,  time.  Foreigners  are  always  astonished  at 
the  short  time  required  for  the  construction  of  an  American 
frame  building. 

The  speculative  tendency  of  the  villagers  soon  widened  the 
boundaries  of  the  "  original  town."  Kinzie's  addition,  the 
school  section  addition  and  Fort  Dearborn  addition  were 
made,  and  numerous  other  additions  followed  in  the  course  of 
time. 

During  Chicago's  early  years  the  construction  of  buildings 
was,  as  a  matter  of  necessity,  entrusted  entirely  to  the  mechanics 
and  builders.  Business  convenience,  .however,  soon  required 

194 


CHICAGO 


1830. 


that  the  foremost  among  these  men — that  is  those  who  under- 
stood something  about  drawing  arid  making  specifications — 
establish  themselves  as  professional  architects.  The  lead  was 
taken  by  John  M.  Van  Osdel  (died  in  January,  1892),  Edward 
Burling  (died  March,  1892),  and  Asher  Carter  (died  in  1876). 
Each  of  these  gentlemen  enjoyed  a  large  and  prosperous 
business  to  the  end  of  his  days.  The  writer  hereof,  having 
arrived  at  Chicago  in  July,  1850,  became  associated  with  Mr. 
Burling,  in  February,  1852.  Two  years  thereafter  other 
architects  settled  in  Chicago,  and  at  the  time  of  the  fire  there 
were  in  all  twenty  architects  in  the  city.  The  number  has 
increased  to  fully  three  hundred  at  the  present  time. 

The  first  Chicago  settlers  were  not,  as  a  matter  of  course, 
men  of  wealth.  They  had  come  here  to  make  their  fortune. 
Hence  the  earliest  buildings  were,  with  very  rare  exceptions, 
of  the  plainest  and  simplest  character.  Common  bricks  were 
made  from  beds  of  clay  which  were  found  in  several  parts  of 
the  city.  Pressed  bricks  were  shipped  from  Indiana  and  Wis- 
consin. Lumber  came  from  the  shores  of  the  great  lakes. 
The  lumber  trade  soon  assumed  gigantic  proportions  and  made 
Chicago  the  greatest  lumber  market  in  the  world.  Cut  stone 
caps  and  sills  came  from  Joliet  and  from  eastern  points,  notably 
from  Buffalo. 

The  narrow  waterway  which  divided  the  city  into  three 
parts  necessitated  the  early  establishment  of  ferries  and  later 
the  erection  of  bridges.  The  ferries  were  propelled  by  pull- 
ing on  a  line,  which  ran  from  one  shore  to  the  other,  and  was 
dropped  for  the  passage  of  vessels.  It  sometimes  happened 
that  owing  to  carelessness  a  vessel  broke  the  line  and  in  some 
cases  even  ran  down  the  ferry  with  its  passengers.  In  one 
instance  sixteen  persons  were  drowned  owing  to  a  collision  be- 
tween the  ferry  boat  and  a  passing  vessel.  Bridges  were  soon  built 
to  span  the  river  at  Clark,  Wells,  Randolph,  Kinzie,  Madison, 
Van  Buren  and  Twelfth  streets.  The  bridges  were  con- 
structed in  three  pieces,  the  central  section  was  movable,  one 

196 


end  resting  on  a  scow  in  the  river  and  the  other  being  pivoted 
to  one  of  the  bridge  abutments.  When  it  was  necessary 
to  open  the  river  for  navigation,  the  scow  was  swung  around 
close  to  the  shore  and  left  an  opening  in  the  bridge  large 
enough  for  a  vessel  to  pass  through.  This  method  of  bridge 
opening  soon  proved  too  primitive  and  slow  for  early  Chicago 
and  in  1853  the  first  swing  bridge  was  erected  at  Lake  street, 
not,  however,  without  the  solemn  protest  of  a  large  majority  of 
the  property  owners  on  Randolph  street,  who  were  afraid  that 
such  "competition"  in  river  crossing  would  depreciate  the  value 
of  their  property.  The  present  steel,  steam  swinging  bridges  of 
Chicago  are  but  an  outgrowth  of  the  Lake  street  bridge  of  '53. 

From  the  first  the  traffic  of  the  city  —  dirty  even  while 
little — was  very  active.  The  streets  were  crowded  with  peo- 
ple who  had  no  leisure.  Every  one  in  Chicago  was  always  in 
a  hurry.  Hundreds  of  wagons  crowded  the  unpaved  streets 
which,  in  order  to  secure  drainage  for  the  buildings,  were 
laid  out  lower  even  than  the  average  level  of  the  city's  site. 
Narrow  wooden  sewers,  discharging  into  the  river,  were  laid 
directly  under  the  planks  which  covered  the  streets  in  place  of 
a  real  pavement.  Sometimes  the  sewers  became  choked  up, 
and  the  heavy  rains  were  not  drained  off.  The  planks,  when 
loosened  by  heavy  travel,  floated  away  on  such  occasions, 
and  citizens  marked  the  places  where  there  were  no  planks 
with  signs  inscribed  "no  bottom." 

In  the  winter  Chicago  was  very  quiet,  for  there  were  no 
railroads,  and  the  extensive  fleet  of  the  city  lay  still  and  fast 
in  the  ice-bound  river.  Only  a  few  farmers,  coming  to  town 
with  their  products,  enlivened  the  deadness  of  the  streets.  In 
the  second  stage, 

CHICAGO  TO    1871, 

all  this  was  changed.  Numerous  railroads  were  built  and 
kept  the  city's  trade  and  commerce  lively  the  year  round. 
Excellent  water  works  were  established  and  their  development 

197 


has  kept  pace  with  the  city's  growth,  until  now  (1893),  a  new 
p-foot  tunnel,  running  out  for  four  miles  into  the  lake,  supplies 
the  city  with  pure  water. 

Extensive  quarries  were  opened  at  Athens,  20  miles  south  of 
Chicago,  in  beds  of  Silurian  limestone,  large  deposits  of  which 
are  found  throughout  the  state.  These  beds  vary  in  thickness 
from  four  inches  to  three  feet,  and  the  stone  was  for  many 
years  used  on  the  best  buildings  in  the  city.  It  did  not,  how- 
ever, prove  durable,  disintegrating  on  its  exposed  surfaces  and 
splitting  easily  when  quarried  in  large  blocks.  Its  use,  there- 
fore, is  now  confined  to  footings,  flaggings,  copings  and  the 
like.  Other  kinds  of  stone  were  soon  brought  from  different 
states;  oolitic  limestone  from  Indiana;  many  kinds  of  sand- 
stone from  Ohio,  marble  from  Vermont;  granite  from  New 
England,  Missouri  and  Wisconsin.  The  trade  in  such  building- 
stone  has  so  materially  increased  that  at  this  day  there  are 
probably  more  than  a  hundred  kinds  of  free-stone  and  granite 
on  the  local  market,  certainly  as  many — if  not  more — than 
could  be  had  at  any  other  city  in  the  world. 

Brick  making  was  soon  done  by  machinery  and  the  demand 
is  at  present  so  great  that  probably  not  more  than  five  per  cent 
of  the  bricks  used  are  produced  in  the  old-fashioned  way.  Face- 
bricks  of  all  kinds  and  colors  came  gradually  into  demand;  St. 
Louis,  Baltimore  and  Philadelphia,  supplied  the  first  brick  of 
superior  quality,  but  now  they  are  manufactured  in  scores  of 
places. 

More  and  more  attention  was  being  paid  to  architecture, 
although  appearances  were  still,  to  a  large  extent,  sacrificed  to 
economy.  In  1852  the  six-story  Exchange  Bank  building, 
corner  of  Lake  and  Clark  streets,  was  erected  in  a  style  of 
Greek  Renaissance,  with  both  fronts  of  Athens  limestone. 
The  next  year  the  four-story  Marine  Bank,  corner  of  Lake 
and  La  Salle  streets,  was  put  up,  likewise  with  both  fronts  of 
Athens  limestone,  though  the  style  was  not  as  consistent  and 
elaborate  as  in  the  case  of  the  other  bank  building.  Several 

198 


Unity  Church. 


other  buildings  for  store  and  office  purposes  were  erected 
before  1857,  when  the  great  financial  crisis  put  an  end  for  sev- 
eral years  to  all  building  activity.  None  of  these  early  build- 
ings could  bear  judgment  purely  from  the  standard  of  high 
art.  They  resulted  from  productive  energy  and  that  conscious 
pride  which  has  at  all  times  been  the  father  of  art,  but  their 
development  was  slow.  It  may  well  be  doubted,  however, 
whether  the  ablest  architect,  under  the  same  circumstances  and 
with  the  same  means,  could  have  produced  results  essentially 
different.  Most  of  the  better  buildings  were  in  the  style  of 
the  Renaissance,  but  greatly  simplified  in  order  to  save  expense. 
One  of  the  finest  buildings  was  that  of  the  First  National 
Bank,  corner  of  State  and  Washington  streets.  Residences 
of  luxurious  elegance  were  exceedingly  rare  as  yet. 

In  1871  Chicago  had  become  the  metropolis  of  the  north- 
west, and  was  endowed  with  a  feverish  activity.  Its  inhabi- 
tants numbered  over  three  hundred  thousand.  Great  things 
were  expected  from  the  future,  but  all  at  once  the  city  was 
almost  wiped  from  the  face  of  the  earth  by  the  great  fire. 
Nothing  but  a  portion  of  the  South  and  West  Divisions  re- 
mained to  mark  the  spot  where  the  young  giant  had  stood.  The 
very  elements  had  conspired  for  the  city's  annihilation.  The 
peculiar  dryness  of  the  atmosphere  and  the  remarkable  fierce- 
ness and  power  of  the  flames  gave  rise  to  a  scientific  theory 
that  the  air  of  the  earth  had  become  impregnated  with  gaseous 
exhalations  from  Donati's  comet,  which  at  that  time  was  in  its 
nearest  approach  to  our  planet.  Another  attempted  explanation 
of  the  great  catastrophe  assumed  that  the  near  presence  of  the 
comet  had  generated  a  large  amount  of  atmospheric  electricity, 
and  that  this  contributed  to  the  rapid  spread  of  the  flames. 

THE  CHICAGO  OF  TO-DAY. 

The  smoke  had  not  lifted  from  the  burnt  city  when,  in  the 
heart  of  every  patriotic  citizen,"  it  had  been  decided  that 
Chicago  should  be  rebuilt.  Within  a  year  the  down-town 

200 


quarter  had  been  well  nigh  rebuilt,  and  before  two  years  had 
passed  almost  all  the  scars  of  the  great  conflagration  had  been 
effaced.  Where  formerly  there  had  been  vacant  lots,  or  two 
and  three  story  frame  buildings,  large  brick  and  stone  struc- 
tures were  now  erected.  In  fact,  so  active  was  the  building 
that  more  stores  and  offices  were  put  up  than  were  needed, 
and  only  those  first  constructed  were  filled  with  tenants.  For 
buildings  not  centrally  located  no  adequate  rents  could  be 
obtained.  As  the  insurance  in  the  burnt  district  was  light, 
most  of  the  buildings  were  put  up  with  borrowed  money,  and 
the  scarcity  of  tenants  proved  a  great  embarrassment  to  own- 
ers. All  buildings  had  been  erected  at  an  increased  cost, 
owing  to  the  high  prices  of  material  and  labor.  The  panic  of 
1873  caused  numerous  failures,  and  fortunate  indeed  was  the 
landlord  who  could  keep  himself  afloat  by  the  assistance  of  a 
magnanimous  mortgagee. 

As  a  matter  of  course  the  new  buildings  erected  just  after 
the  fire  did  not  differ  materially  from  those  they  replaced. 
Artistically  considered,  the  new  structures  were  no  improve- 
ment on  the  old.  For  nearly  ten  years  after  the  panic,  build- 
ing was  very  dull,  and  it  was  the  latter  part  of  the  8o's  before 
it  grew  active  again.  Since  1890,  however,  the  amount  of 
money  annually  expended  on  new  buildings,  is  in  excess  of 
that  used  the  first  year  after  the  fire.  Since  1871  the  archi- 
tects of  Chicago  have  steadily  increased  in  number,  and  have 
done  great  work  in  the  re-construction  of  the  city.  Many  of 
these  men  have  graduated  from  the  best  schools  in  the  east, 
and  not  a  few  have  been  educated  in  Europe.  Local  educa- 
tion in  architecture  has  been  provided  for  in  the  new 
University  of  Chicago,  where  careful  instruction  will  be  given 
in  this  art. 

Chicago  architecture  in  general  is  that  of  the  English 
school,  which  is  in  vogue  in  the  east  as  well  as  the  west. 
Only  lately  has  the  French  school  made  its  influence  strongly 
felt  on  American  architecture.  It  is,  nevertheless,  not  too 

202 


much  to  say  that  the  English  architects  have  not  equaled 
their  French,  Italian  and  German  competitors.  The  ideas  of 
the  Renaissance  were  neither  so  kindly  received  nor  so  fully 
understood  in  England  as  on  the  continent — in  fact,  the  influ- 
ence of  the  late  so-called  classic  Renaissance  of  the  first 
decade  of  this  century,  was  but  slightly  felt  in  England. 
Greek  art  and  all  art  derived  therefrom  and  thereon  depend- 
ing, can  by  no  means,  be  attained  by  a  series  of  mechanical 
measurements  with  rule  and  compass.  It  is  so  subtle,  so 
delicate  in  essential  details,  that  it  requires  the  genius  of  the 
true  artist.  In  recent  years,  however,  English  architects  have 
been  quite  happy  in  their  work — to  a  degree  that  one  rriight 
speak  of  it  as  belonging  to  a  new  school,  that  of  the  modern 
English.  Their  style  abounds  in  odd  and  abnormal  forms, 
which  sometimes  go  so  far  as  to  violate  the  principles  of 
sound  construction,  and  yet  the  result  is  pleasing  to  the  eye. 
This  modern  English  school  has  had  great  influence  on 
Chicago,  particularly  in  so  far  as  residences  are  concerned. 
Chicago  homes  are  not  only  handsome  and  elegant,  but  like- 
wise solid  and  comfortable.  They  take  an  endless  variety  of 
forms,  and  all  monotonous  repetitions  are  avoided.  Even  in 
solid  rows  of  dwellings,  each  individual  house  bears,  on  its 
narrow  front,  some  peculiarity  of  design  that  relieves  the 
general  similarity. 

"7  Modern  office  buildings  are  of  immense_sjze ;  running  from 
.twelve  to  twenty  stories  in  height.  ^They "e  built  with  an 
irorTbr  steel  sTceletorT,  wTnCh-trphoicls  the  various  floors  and 
gives  solidity  to  the  structure.  The  facings,  walls  and  floors 
are  made  of  stone,  brick  and  terra  cotta.  Numerous  eleva- 
tors are  an  essential  part  of  the  equipment  of  all  high  buildings. 
The  interiors  of  the  modern  buildings  are  a  vast  improve- 
ment over  the  style  of  a  decade  ago,  being  clean,  light  and 
airy;  but  the  immense  windows  and  certain  other  fixed 
details  involve  the  sacrifice__of  the  frontal  beauty  of  many 
of  the  great  structures.  In  frequent  cases  the  architect, 

204 


Woman's  Temple. 


despairing  of  giving  the  large,  uniform  fronts  any  strength  or 
expression,  has  simply  built  a  plain  wall,  regularly  pierced  with 
windows. ;r-Some  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  to  be  noted:  first, 
~~ffte~""  Insurance  Exchange,"  which,  though  not  a  remarkably 
costly  structure,  has  a  front  that  is  clever  in  spite  of  its  sever- 
ity and  a  portico  which  is  charming,  then  the  "  Rookery  "  and 
"  Phenix  "  buildings,  both  of  ornate  design  and  pleasing  exte- 
rior, and  finally  the  "Woman's  Temple."  The  Rookery  and 
Phenix  are  independently  conceived  in  forms  derived  from 
medieval  productions,  and  are  cheerful  and  pleasing.  Prob- 
ably no  other  office  building  in  the  country  compares  with  them. 
They  give  evidence  of  the  fact  that  the  true  architect  is  the 
inventor  of  his  designs.  The  rudiments  of  these  forms  are  in 
existence  and  it  is  for  the  thinking  mind  to  work  them  up  and 
so  assign  them  as  to  produce  a  work  of  art. 

The  store  buildings  are  not  as  high,  on  the  average,  as  the 
strictly  office  buildings.  All  those  of  recent  construction  are 
fire-proof  so  far  as  possible,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  they 
could  withstand  the  heat  that  would  be  generated  by  the  mer- 
chandise which  they  contain  if  a  fire  ever  got  well  started. 
Their  fronts  are  massive  and  imposing.  Chicago  theatres  are 
numerous,  the  largest  being  the  famous  "Auditorium,"  which 
has  the  greatest  seating  capacity  of  any  theatre  in  the  world. 
The  new  "  Schiller"  is  a  model  of  beauty  and  elegance. 

The  city's  hotels  are  for  the  most  part,  fire-proof,  and  are 
built  in  splendid  style  and  of  the  best  materials.  One  of  the 
new  hotels  is  fourteen  stories  high.  The  numerous  apartment 
buildings  are  a  feature  of  the  city.  These  are  beautiful 
structures,  fire-proof,  of  excellent  construction,  and  ranging 
from  six  to  twelve  stories  high. 

THE   CHICAGO  OF  THE   FUTURE. 

Chicago  now  has  a  population  of  one  and  a  third  million,  and 
judging  the  future  by  the  past,  It  is  safe  to  assume  that  the 
city  will  enjoy  an  annual  growth  of  at  least  80,000  souls.  At 


this  rate  the  population  of  Chicago  in  1940  would  be  five 
millions.  But  what  changes  and  improvements  will  have  to  be 
made  to  accommodate  such  an  enormous  increase  in  popula- 
tion !  As  to  sewers,  it  may  be  confidently  asserted  that  the 
new  drainage  canal  will  forever  dispose  of  that  question.  The 
new  four-mile  tunnel  will  provide  a  fair  supply  of  water  for 
the  immediate  future,  but  the  demand  will  in  time  exceed  the 
supply,  and  new  works  will  have  to  be  constructed  and  new 
tunnels  made.  Still  with  the  great  lake  at  its  doors  the  ques- 
tion of  Chicago's  water  supply  is  not  serious.  The  streets  of 
the  city  are  filled  with  underground  sewers,  gas,  water  and 
steam  pipes,  wires,  cables  and  pneumatic  tubes.  The  pave- 
ments are  constantly  being  torn  up  to  lay  new  pipes  or  wires 
or  to  repair  old  ones.  All  this  must  be  changed,  and  the  best 
way  to  arrange  for  all  interests  concerned  is  to  construct 
large  tunnels  under  the  principal  streets,  and  in  them  all  the 
wires,  pipes  and  sewers  can  be  placed. 

Chicago's  enormous  street  traffic  offers  a  problem  difficult  of 
adequate  solution.  This  traffic  is  constantly  increasing,  while 
the  size  of  the  streets  is  fixed.  No  proposition  to  widen  down- 
town thoroughfares  can  be  seriously  entertained.  Two  solu- 
tions of  the  difficulty  have  been  suggested.  The  one  provides 
for  tunnels  under  the  streets,  the  other  for  elevated  roads. 
With  proper  construction,  the  elevated  road  seems  to  offer  the 
most  satisfactory  means  of  intra-mural  communication.  The 
present  elevated  road,  with  its  cumbersome  trestle  and  dirty, 
noisy  engine,  must  be  done  away  with,  and  a  light,  graceful 
one  substituted.  Electricity — the  power  of  the  future — must 
be  used  to  silently  and  rapidly  move  the  cars  of  the  new  road, 
which  would  then  prove  entirely  adequate  to  the  demands  of 
a  great  city,  and  underground  railroads,  with  their  many  dis- 
advantages, would  not  be  seriously  considered. 

The  bridge  nuisance  also  demands  early  solution.  At  pres- 
ent the  three  divisions  of  the  city  are  connected  by  swingin^ 
bridges,  elevated  on  an  average  fifteen  feet  from  the  surface 

207 


of  the  river,  so  as  to  afford  passage  without  opening  the  bridges 
to  tugs,  scows  and  canal  boats.  For  all  large  vessels,  how- 
ever, the  bridges  must  be  swung  open  while  all  neighbor- 
ing street  traffic  congests  and  much  valuable  time  is  lost.  So 
inconvenient  has  the  swing  bridge  been  found,  that  it  has 
been  seriously  proposed  to  establish  a  new  harbor  for  the  city, 
somewhere  on  the  lake  front,  and  to  abandon  the  river.  This 
suggestion  has  been  met  with  the  greatest  opposition  from 
river  dock-owners  and  vesselmen.  The  latter  declare  that  no 
lake  front  harbor  could  provide  facilities  equal  to  the  river 
with  its  sixteen  miles  of  docks.  A  better  solution  of  the  ques- 
tion is  to  build  stationary  bridges  the  full  width  of  the  street 
at  a  reasonable  height — say  thirty  feet  from  the  water.  The 
greater  width  of  the  new  bridges  would  counterbalance  the 
objection  to  the  increased  grade  and  the  fact  of  their  being 
stationary  would  permit  elevated  roads  to  cross  them  without 
difficulty.  On  the  other  hand,  vesselmen  would  find  that  the 
inconvenience  of  the  new  arrangement  would  be  more  than 
off-set  by  its  advantages.  With  fixed  bridges,  the  masts  of 
vessels  would  have  to  be  so  constructed  that  they  could  be 
laid  flat  on  the  decks  when  the  harbor  was  reached.  This 
arrangement  could  be  provided  for  by  the  use  of  a  little  inge- 
nuity, and  the  cost  of  the  installation  and  maintenance  -of  the 
new  arrangement  would  not  amount  to  so  much  as  would  be 
saved  by  the  increased  rapidity  of  river  communication.  There 
would  be  no  tedious  delays  in  waiting  for  bridges  to  open  and 
the  river  channel,  now  blocked  up  with  the  great  center  pier 
of  the  swinging  bridges,  would  be  free  and  open,  for  the  new 
fixed  bridges  could  span  the  river  without  support  except  from 
the  two  banks. 

Another  reform  demanded  by  the  Chicago  of  the  future  is 
the  removal  of  railroad  tracks  from  the  street  level.  The 
tracks  must  be  either  raised  or  depressed.  The  loss  of  life  at 
grade  crossings  is  so  great — some  three  hundred  lives  being 
sacrificed  yearly — as  to  imperatively  demand  a  change. 

208 


Popular  clamor  is  for  the  elevation  of  tracks,  although  Jie  roads 
themselves  protest  that  they  cannot  afford  to  make  the  change, 
and  the  enormous  interference  with  all  business  seems  to  be 
entirely  overlooked.  But  granted  that  the  tracks  were  raised, 
what  would  be  the  benefits?  The  streets  are  even  now  over- 
crowded and  cable  cars,  although  already  occupying  most  of 
the  down-town  thoroughfares,  are  proving  unequal  to  the 
demands  of  the  present  population.  One  elevated  road  has 
been  completed  and  others  are  being  constructed.  Relief  is 
already  being  sought.  Elevated  railroads  and  elevated  side- 
walks are  regarded  as  the  only  means  of  relieving  the  present 
congested  condition  of  the  streets.  All  this  now,  with  a  pop- 
ulation of  1,300,000 — what  then  will  be  the  condition  of  affairs 
with  a  population  of  five  or  ten  millions?  The  question  must 
be  squarely  met  and  answered. 

If  we  are  to  face  the  future,  let  us  do  it  with  unbandaged 
eyes.  Our  city  is  unparalleled.  It  has  become  a  mighty 
metropolis  in  less  than  a  half  century,  and  within  the  next  fifty 
years  its  progress  will  be  no  less  wonderful.  The  questions 
it  presents  for  solution  are  of  a  peculiar  character.  They 
have  not  been  dealt  with  by  other  large  cities,  but  are  new 
with  Chicago.  We  must  solve  our  own  problems,  and  to 
that  end  the  writer  makes  these  suggestions: 

1.  Do  away,  as  far  as  possible,  with  all  railroad  tracks  in 
the  central  part  of  the  city,  leaving  only  those  that  are  abso- 
lutely necessary  for  the  handling  of  freight. 

2.  Depress,  to  the  level  of  the  lake,  those  that  are  allowed 
to  remain. 

3.  Put    permanent  bridges    on    all  streets  crossing   these 
depressed  tracks. 

4.  Put  tramway  tracks  about  twenty-four  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  streets. 

5.  Make  the  bridges  across  the  river  fixed,  and  so  provide 
for  the  elevated  tramways  between  different  divisions  of  the 
city. 

210 


6.  Locate  the  railroad  depots  at  the  outskirts  of  the  city, 
and  allow  passengers  to  take  the  elevated  roads  to  their 
hotels  or  homes.  If  these  suggestions  were  adopted,  the 
incoming  traveler  in  1940  might  thus  describe  his  experiences: 
"The  train  stopped  in  the  suburbs,  for  the  depot  is  situated 
several  miles  from  the  heart  of  town,  and  I  was  directed  to  an 
elevator,  which  took  me  to  the  second  story  of  the  depot 
building.  This  is  on  a  level  with  the  elevated  tramway 
tracks.  My  car  soon  appeared  and  I  boarded  it,  and  in  ten 
minutes  reached  the  center  of  the  city.  We  were  not  delayed 
by  open  bridges,  for  the  new  Chicago  has  done  away  with 
its  swinging  bridges,  and  the  river  is  now  spanned  by  fixed 
ones,  under  which  the  vessels  pass  with  lowered  masts.  I  got 
off  the  car  onto  a  platform,  from  which  I  went  down  about 
eight  feet,  and  then  found  myself  on  an  elevated  or  second 
story  sidewalk.  I  observed  that  most  of  the  retail  business 
was  done  on  this  second  story  level,  and  that  the  display 
windows  in  the  stores  were  on  this  floor.  I  crossed  the  street 
by  a  narrow  bridge,  went  down  a  flight  of  stairs,  and  for  the 
first  time  reached  the  real  sidewalk  on  the  original  street  level. 
I  called  a  cab,  and  started  for  my  destination  in  another  quarter 
of  the  city.  We  passed  over  several  depressed  railroad  tracks, 
and  under  numerous  elevated  tracks,  which  were  of  such  a 
light  and  graceful  construction  as  to  be  neither  disfiguring  to 
the  city  nor  objectionable  on  the  ground  of  darkening  the 
streets.  The  electric  cars  ran  noiselessly  and  rapidly,  and  I 
soon  saw  that  these  people  had  solved  the  questions  which, 
thirty-five  years  ago,  had  threatened  to  check  the  growth  of 
the  city." 


211 


Chicago's  Art  Development. 

It  is  self-evident  that  so  young  a  city  as  Chicago  can  have 
no  history  of  art  proper,  for  art  can  flourish  only  where  there 
are  firmly  established  conditions  of  life,  and  wealth  and  comfort 
generally  prevail,  for  only  then  is  there  a  desire  to 
adorn  and  to  improve  life  by  art  culture.  All  these  conditions 
were  wanting  in  the  arduous  life  of  the  pioneer,  and  had  first 
to  be  created  by  the  hard  work  of  many  years.  Notwith- 
standing this,  we  find,  shortly  after  the  foundation  of  Chicago, 
pioneers  of  art  at  work,  preparing  the  rough  and  barren 
ground  to  the  best  of  their  ability.  Among  the  first  blos- 
soms thus  obtained  were  those  which  showed  themselves  on 
the  field  of  music.  Though  the  work  was  never  so  hard  and 
the  prospect  never  so  discouraging,  the  innate  energy  of  the 
true  pioneer,  his  enthusiasm  undampened  by  disappointment, 
successfully  overcame  all  difficulties. 

The  Chicago  Harmonic  society  gave  a  concert  of  considera- 
ble pretensions  as  early  as  December,  1835,  and  in  1844  there 
were  two  music  instructors  in  the  city.  P.  T.  Barnum 
brought  a  concert  troupe  with  Italian  artists  to  Chicago  in 
November,  1840,  and  in  1845-46  there  was  given  a  series  of 
concerts  of  real  merit.  The  Choral  Union  was  founded  in 
1846,  with  J.  Johnson  as  leader.  In  1849  it  was  reorganized 
as  the  Mozart  society,  \vith  W.  N.  Dunham  and  Frank  Lum- 
bard  as  musical  directors.  An  effort  to  give  regular  con- 
certs was  made  in  1848-1849,  when  Mr.  Christopher  Plagge 
organized  the  Philharmonic  society,  by  which  popular  com- 
positions for  the  piano,  violin  and  flute  were  performed.  But 
the  meager  support  given  to  his  enterprise  so  discouraged 
Mr.  Plagge  that  he  gave  up  the  attempt  and  returned  to  the 
east.  Mr.  Julius  Dyhrenfurth,  an  accomplished  amateur,  and, 

212 


for  those  times,  an  excellent  violinist,  was  the  next  who  tried 
his  luck  with  concerts.  He  induced  twelve  good  musicians  to 
remove  from  New  York,  and  with  their  assistance  gave,  in 
Tremont  Hall  (1850-1852),  popular  or  promenade  concerts. 
To  Mr.  Dyhrenfurth,  therefore,  belongs  the  honor  of  having 
made  the  first  attempts  to  give  orchestra  concerts,  although 
on  a  smaller  scale.  However,  it  soon  became  clear  to  Mr. 
Dyhrenfurth  that  in  Chicago  a  mercantile  career  promised 
more  than  an  artistic  one,  and  he  relinquished  art  and  devoted 
himself  to  business.  The  musicians  then  living  in  Chicago 
founded  the  Great  Western  band,  which  under  their  leaders, 
A.  T.  Vaas  and  C.  Romanus,  did  good  work,  both  as  a 
military  band  and  as  a  string  orchestra.  Soon  after  the  great 
immigration  of  '48  there  was  formed  an  association  in  which 
social  as  well  as  artistic  ends  were  to  be  cultivated.  This  was 
the  Chicago  Meennergesangverein,  which  was  formed  1852, 
and  at  first  under  Emil  Rein,  and  later  on  under  Julius  Unger, 
did  excellent  service,  giving  in  1855  three  operatic  perform- 
ances in  the  Deutsche  Haus:  " Mordgrundbruck,"  "Czar 
and  Carpenter,"  and  "  Alexandro  Stradella."  The  great  mu- 
sical event  of  the  year  1853  was  the  first  Chicago  appearance 
of  Adelina  Patti  and  Ole  Bull,  who  gave  concerts  in  April,  in 
Tremont  Music  Hall. 

The  splendid  Germania  Orchestra  was  disbanded  in  Boston 
in  1853,  and  its  eminent  conductor,  Carl  Bergmann,  was  induced 
to  come  to  Chicago  to  take  up  the  concerts  abandoned 
by  Mr.  Dyhrenfurth.  But  Chicago  life  did  not  suit  him,  and 
after  one  season  he  went  back  to  New  York  without  having 
accomplished  much  of  anything.  Henry  Ahner,  a  former 
member  of  the  Germania  Orchestra,  came  to  Chicago  in  1856 
and  conducted  the  newly  established  singing  society,  "  The 
Freie  Sasngerbund."  For  several  years  he  gave  successful 
orchestra  concerts  (evening  and  afternoon),  at  Metropolitan 
Hall,  corner  of  La  Salle  and  Randolph  streets.  Ahner  was  a 
genuine  musical  pioneer.  He  had  great  energy,  a  never- 

213 


tiring  perseverance  and  that  degree  of  enthusiasm  which 
easily  overcomes  all  difficulties.  Besides  this,  he  was  a  good 
musician.  The  whole  fashionable  world  of  Chicago  patron- 
ized his  concerts,  and  it  seemed  as  if  they  would  become  a 
lasting  success.  Unfortunately,  his  rather  delicate  constitu- 
tion proved  unequal  to  this  exacting  mode  of  life,  and  he  died 
in  the  summer  of  1858. 

During  this  period  (1855-60),  excellent  chamber  concerts 
were  given,  first  at  Tremont  Hall  and  later  on  in  Metropol- 
itan Hall,  by  the  pianists  Paul  Becker  and  Mrs.  Henry  Band, 
later  Mrs.  Kloss,  the  violinist,  Henry  De  Clerque,  and  the 
violoncellist,  Albert  Melms.  These  concerts,  in  point  of  merit, 
would  favorably  compare  with  similar  entertainments  of  the 
present  time.  The  Nordwestliche  Sasngerbund,  which  had 
been  founded  in  Milwaukee  the  year  before,  gave  its  second 
great  Sasngerfest  in  Chicago,  in  June,  1857.  Besides  three 
Chicago  societies,  there  participated  in  this  festival,  societies 
from  Milwaukee,  Manitowoc,  Madison,  Dubuque,  Davenport 
and  St.  Louis.  All  the  singers,  numbering  250,  were  quar- 
tered in  private  families.  The  orchestra,  of  thirty-five,  was 
composed  of  Chicago  musicians.  The  festival  consisted  of 
one  principal  concert  at  Metropolitan  Hall,  with  orchestra 
and  choral  numbers,  and  one  popular  concert  at  the 
"  Deutsche  Haus,"  with  solo  singing  by  the  different  societies, 
on  which  occasion  the  Milwaukee  musical  society  won  the 
highest  distinction  by  singing  Kuecken's  chorus,  "  On  the 
Rhine."  Mr.  Christian  Wahl  was  the  president,  and  Mr.  Hans 
Balatka  the  musical  director  of  the  festival.  The  principal 
numbers  of  the  concert  in  Metropolitan  Hall  were :  Jubilee 
Overture  for  orchestra,  by  Weber;  a  fantasia,  for  cornet, 
by  Vivier,  played  by  Mr.  H.  Ahner,  and  Weber's  Concert- 
stueck,  played  by  Mrs.  Henry  Band.  The  grand  choruses 
were:  "Warrior's  Nightwatch"  with  orchestra,  by  Eckert, 
Zoellner's  "Mountain  March,"  and  "The  Alps,"  by  T. 
Froehlich. 


214 


In  1859,  another  American  choral  society  was  organized, 
the  "  Musical  Union."  It  was  under  the  musical  direction 
of  Mr.  C.  M.  Cady,  who,  one  year  later,  transferred  it  to  Mr. 
George  F.  Root.  Choruses  from  oratorios,  cantatas,  and,  later 
on,  Haydn's  "  Creation,"  but  with  piano  accompaniment  only, 
were  produced  by  this  society.  Its  accompanist,  Mr.  A.  W. 
Dohn,  to  whom  the  progress  of  the  Musical  Union  appeared 
too  slow,  founded  the  "  Mendelssohn  society,"  which  entered 
into  successful  competition  with  the  "  Union,"  and  produced 
Sterndale  Bennett's,  "  May  Queen,"  Mendelssohn's  42d 
psalm  and  other  choral  works  by  the  same  master. 

The  drama,  even  in  those  early  days,  was  flourishing. 
Rice's  was  the  first  theater  building,  and  while  some  of  the 
entertainments  given  there  were  crude  and  with  but  little 
artistic  merit,  others  were  given  by  the  best  actors  in  America. 
Joseph  Jefferson  and  his  wife  and  their  boy,  the  celebrated 
Joseph  Jefferson  of  to-day,  appeared  in  Chicago  in  1837. 
"Hamlet"  was  first  produced  in  1839.  An  early  Chicago 
favorite  was  Mrs.  Hunt,  now  Mrs.  John  Drew — one  of 
America's  oldest  and  most  famous  actresses.  Junius  Brutus 
Booth  made  his  first  appearance  in  1848. 

In  1855,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Msennergesangverein, 
the  "  Deutsche  Haus "  was  built,  corner  of  North  Wells 
and  Indiana  streets,  where,  it  was  hoped,  the  German 
drama  would  find  a  lasting  home.  In  the  beginning,  every- 
thing went  well  and  the  Deutsche  Haus  became  the  center  of 
German  art  and  society.  But  dissensions  and  jealousies 
soon  made  their  baneful  influence  felt  and  gradually  the 
Deutsche  Haus,  theatre  and  all,  went  to  ruin. 

In  regard  to  painting,  the  advent  of  two  famous  artists  is  to 
be  noted;  the  German,  H.  Merkle,  and  the  Irishman,  E.  Healy. 
Healy  stood  very  high  in  Paris  and  Rome,  where  he  was  hon- 
ored by  an  order  to  paint  the  portrait  of  Pope  Pius  IX. 

Music  in  Chicago  received  a  new  impetus  by  the  produc- 
tion, in  the  Cathedral  of  the  Holy  Name,  of  Mozart's 

215 


"Requiem."  Miss  Emilie  Garthe,  soprano  in  the  cathedral 
choir,  had  conceived  the  idea,  but  there  was  at  that  time 
no  one  in  Chicago  to  undertake  the  work.  Hans  Balatka, 
of  Milwaukee,  who  had  already  gained  a  national  reputa- 
tion by  his  success  with  the  Milwaukee  musical  society 
and  his  management  of  several  large  Sagngerfests,  was 
suggested  as  the  proper  person  to  direct  the  production 
of  the  "  Requiem."  He  was  accordingly  invited  to  come 
to  Chicago  and  undertake  the  work.  He  accepted  the 
invitation,  and  about  the  middle  of  September,  1860,  the 
"  Requiem "  was  given  under  his  direction,  by  a  chorus  of 
sixty  voices,  with  an  orchestral  accompaniment  of  thirty 
pieces.  The  soloists  were  Miss  E.  Garthe,  soprano;  Miss  L. 
Farrel,  alto ;  A.  Maus,  tenor,  and  Messrs.  Christian  Sonne  and 
H.  de  Passio,  bassos.  The  performance  was,  in  every  par- 
ticular, an  unqualified  success.  A  committee  of  the  most  influ- 
ential musical  people,  among  them  Messrs.  E.  I.  Tinkham, 
J.  G.  Shortall,  E.  Stickney,  Otto  H.  Matz  and  Dr.  Brainard, 
invited  Mr.  Balatka  to  make  Chicago  his  future  home,  and  to 
take  charge  of  a  new  musical  organization.  Mr.  Balatka 
accepted  this  invitation  also,  and  in  October,  1860,  the  Phil- 
harmonic Society  of  Chicago  was  formed.  In  November  its  first 
concert  was  given  in  Bryan  Hall — now  the  Grand  Opera 
House — and  from  that  time  concerts  took  place  monthly. 
Their  success  was  unprecedented.  Almost  all  of  Beethoven's 
symphonies  were  performed,  as  were  several  from  Mozart, 
Haydn,  Mendelssohn,  Gade  and  Hugo  Ulrich.  There  were 
also  rendered  a  great  number  of  important  overtures  and  other 
orchestral  works  of  the  modern  school,  alternating  with  vocal 
and  instrumental  solos.  The  demand  for  tickets  was  so  great 
that  several  weeks  before  the  beginning  of  a  new  season, 
every  seat'in  the  hall  was  taken.  In  1862,  Balatka  accepted 
the  leadership  of  the  Musical  Union,  and  in  the  spring  of  1863, 
produced  the  oratorio  of  "Elijah."  In  1864,  he  produced  at 
McVicker's  theater  the  opera  "  Czar  und  Zimmermann," 

216 


(Czar  and  Carpenter).  At  this  time,  Mr.  Paul  Becker  gave 
numerous  successful  chamber  concerts  at  Lyon  &  Healy's, 
and  Mrs.  Kloss,  piano,  Dr.  Fessel,  violin,  and  Balatka,  cello, 
gave  a  series  of  classical  concerts  in  the  First  Methodist 
Church. 

The  musicians  of  Chicago,  early  in  the  6o's,  had  separated 
into  two  rival  organizations,  the  Great  Western  band  and  the 
Light  Guard  band,  but  in  1864  all  were  re-united  under  the 
name  Great  Western  Light  Guard  band,  and  instituted  the 
popular  Sunday  afternoon  concerts,  in  North  Side  Turner 
Hall,  which  still  continue. 

The  erection  of  Crosby's  Opera  House,  in  1864-65,  and  of 
Farwell  Hall,  marked  a  new  epoch  in  Chicago  musical  his- 
tory. Crosby's  Opera  House  was  opened  with  a  four  weeks' 
season  of  Italian  opera,  given  by  such  famous  artists  as  Zucchi, 
Morensi,  Kellogg,  Mazzoleni,  Massimiliani  and  Bellini.  The 
Philharmonic  society  transferred  its  concerts  to  the  new  opera 
house,  but  owing  to  the  greater  popularity  of  the  opera  the 
patronage  of  the  concerts  gradually  diminished  and  they  were 
finally  abandoned.  From  1866  to  1868,  Balatka  gave  symphony 
concerts  in  Farwell  Hall  and  supplemented  them  with  several 
series  of  afternoon  concerts,  but  the  financial  success  of  the 
new  departure  was  indifferent  and  these  concerts,  too,  were 
given  up. 

In  the  realm  of  vocal  art  things  went  somewhat  better. 
The  Musical  Union  was  re-organized  under  the  name  of  the 
Oratorio  society,  and  gave,  in  Farwell  Hall,  a  series  of  brilliant 
performances,  with  a  chorus  of  400  voices,  and  such  soloists 
as  Parepa  Rosa,  Nielsson,  Gary,  Nordbloom,  Whitney  and 
Rudolphson.  Not  only  the  artistic,  but  even  the  financial  suc- 
cess of  these  concerts  was  complete.  The  Maennerchor  socie- 
ties now  received  a  new  impetus.  Hans  Balatka  assumed  the 
directorship  of  the  Germania  Maennerchor  and  worked  to 
make  the  society  the  center  of  all  German  art  and  society  in 
Chicago.  His  remarkable  talent  for  organization  soon  brought 

217 


about  the  desired  result  and  the  Germania  Maennerchor  com- 
pared favorably  with  the  Liederkranz  and  Arion  societies  of 
New  York.  At  the  time  of  Lincoln's  funeral,  the  Germania 
Maennerchor  rendered  several  German  choruses.  Later 
some  members  of  the  Germania,  under  Otto  Lob,  formed  the 
Concordia  Maennerchor,  and  now  a  healthy  and  profitable 
rivalry  sprang  up  between  the  two  societies.  The  result  was 
a  series  of  highly  enjoyable  concerts  and  other  musical  enter- 
prises, which,  in  1870,  culminated  with  the  performance, by  the 
Germania,  of  the  operas  "  Der  Freischuetz"  and  "Stradella" 
and  the  rendering  of  the  "  Magic  Flute,"  by  the  Concordia, 
The  solo  parts  were  given  by  amateurs  only,  but  so  much 
care  had  been  bestowed  upon  them  that  the  performances 
were  fully  equal  to  all  requirements  of  art.  The  mount- 
ing of  the  operas  and  the  ensemble  were  much  better 
than  Chicago  had  ever  seen  before;  for  the  Italian  and 
Parepa's  English  opera  troops  had  had  a  chorus  of  but 
forty  voices  and  an  orchestra  of  twenty-five  or  thirty  pieces, 
while  the  choruses  of  these  societies  numbered  over  one  hun- 
dred singers  and  the  orchestras  consisted  of  sixty  musicians. 
The  great  Saengerfest  of  the  North  American  Saengerbund, 
which  was  held  in  Chicago  in  the  month  of  June,  1865,  formed 
an  important  episode  in  the  musical  life  of  the  city.  It  was 
distinguished  from  other  festivals  of  the  kind  by  being  not 
only  of  a  national,  but  also  of  an  international  character. 
Thirty-six  clubs  belonging  to  the  American  Saengerbund,  and 
the  two  leading  New  York  societies,  the  Arion  and  Lieder- 
kranz, were  represented.  Mr.  Emil  Dietzsch,  the  secretary  of 
the  festival,  was  instructed  by  the  executive  committee  to  send 
invitations  to  every  singing  society  in  Germany.  A  delega- 
tion of  German  singers  actually  took  part  in  the  festival.  The 
three  grand  concerts  were  given  in  the  skating  rink,  corner  of 
Wabash  avenue  and  Jackson  street.  The  chorus  consisted  of 
1 200  singers,  while  the  grand  orchestra,  for  the  first  time 
on  such  an  occasion,  numbered  one  hundred  musicians. 

218 


Gerniania  Maennerchor  Club  House. 


The  artistic  and  financial  successes  were  equally  great. 
The  receipts  of  the  concerts  gave  a  surplus  of  about 
$4000,  which  sum  was  divided  among  the  seven  Chicago 
societies  that  had  arranged  the  festival.  Encouraged  by  the 
great  success  of  its  concerts  and  operas,  the.  Germania 
Masnnerchor,  celebrated,  December  17,  1870,  the  one  hun- 
dredth anniversary  of  Beethoven's  birth  by  the  production  of 
the  master's  immortal  Ninth  Choral  Symphony. 

Meanwhile  the  number  of  theatres  had  increased  from  two 
to  seven,  and  the  character  of  their  general  work  was  excel- 
lent. The  German  drama  still  languished  in  a  state  of  total 
impotency,  but  Chicago  became  well  known  among  Ameri- 
can cities  for  its  high  standard  of  dramatic  art.  The  stock 
company  system  was  still  in  vogue.  The  great  stars  traveled 
from  city  to  city,  where  they  were  supported  by  local  companies. 
Chicago's  stock  companies  were  from  the  first  composed  of 
actors  of  the  highest  ability.  Many  a  man  who  graduated 
from  one -of  McVicker's  stock  companies  has  since  achieved  a 
national  reputation.  Though  not  the  pioneer  of  the  Chicago 
'drama,  James  H.  McVicker  has  contributed  more  to  the  city's 
development  in  that  line  than  any  other  half  dozen  men. 
Himself  -a  comedian  of  the  highest  ability,  he  made  his  first 
appearance  in  Chicago  in  April,  1848.  At  that  time  Rice's 
theatre  was  the  home  of  the  dramatic  muse,  and  young 
McVicker  was  engaged  as  the  comedian.  He  was  very  suc- 
cessful, but  in  1851  left  the  city  and  began  a  starring  tour 
through  the  United  States.  In  1855  he  went  to  England, 
where  he  continued  his  successes.  In  1857  he  returned  to 
Chicago,  and  on  November  5th  opened  McVicker's  theatre— 
the  most  costly,  substantial  and  convenient  theatre  in  the 
west.  Its  seating  capacity  was  2500,  its  stage  of  ample  size, 
and  its  properties  and  scenery-complete.  From  the  first,  plays 
of  standard  merit  were  performed  by  actors  of  no  mean 
ability.  Mr.  McVicker  organized  a  stock  company  that  made 
his  theatre  famous,  not  only  in  America,  but  even  in  England. 

220 


Occasionally  McVicker  himself  appeared,  as  was  the  case 
when  the  celebrated  actor,  James  E.  Murdoch,  visited  Chicago 
in  December,  1857,  giving  a  repertoire  of  Shakespearean  plays. 
In  the  January  following,  Charlotte  Cushman  played  at 
McVicker's,  and  in  May  Edwin  Booth  made  his  first  appear- 
ance. Miss  Mary  McVicker,  afterwards  Mrs.  Edwin  Booth, 
appeared  at  her  father's  theatre  in  August,  1859.  The  cele- 
ebrated  Adah  Isaacks  Menken,  the  elder  Sothern,  J.  Wilkes 
Booth,  Edwin  Forrest,  J.  H.  Hackett,  America's  most  famous 
"  Falstaff,"  Daniel  E.  Bandmann,  the  German  tragedian,  and 
Lawrence  Barrett  were  other  stars  who  played  at  McVicker's 
before  the  fire. 

Among  Chicago  artists  at  this  time  were  G.  P.  A.  Healy, 
S.  P.  Tracy,  Howard  -  Strong,  E.  Schwert,  Daniel  F. 
Bigelow  and  Leonard  W.  Volk.  In  May,  1859,  tne 
first  Art  Exposition  was  held  in  Chicago.  The  contribu- 
tors numbered  seventy,  and  the  catalogue  showed 
twenty  pieces  of  statuary,  twenty  works  in  water 
color  and  over  three  hundred  in  oil  on  exhibition. 
So  great  wras  the  success  of  this  enterprise  that  the  local 
artists  formed  the  Chicago  Art  Union.  Shortly  before  his 
nomination  for  the  presidency,  Abraham  Lincoln  sat  for  L.  W. 
Volk,  the  sculptor,  who  executed  an  excellent  bust,  which  was 
afterwards  exhibited  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1867.  In 
1866  the  Chicago  Academy  of  Design  was  founded  by  several 
professional  artists  who  were  eager  to  foster  local  art. 

During  the  war  George  F.  Root  gained  a  national  reputa- 
tion by  his  war  songs,  '•  The  Battle  Cry  of  Freedom," 
"Tramp,  Tramp,  Tramp,"  "Marching  Through  Georgia," 
and  others. 

The  great  fire  wiped  out  of  existence  most  of  Chicago's 
musical  societies.  The  Oratorio  Society  had  just  finished 
rehearsing  the  two  great  oratorios  of  "  Eli,"  by  Costa,  and 
"Judas  Maccabaeus,"  by  Ilandl,  which  were  to  be  produced 
about  the  middle  of  October,  when  both  the  music  and  instru- 


221 


ments  of  the  society  were  lost  in  the  fire.  The  society 
was  re-organized  in  the  fall  of  1872,  with  J.  A.  Butterfield  as 
conductor,  and  the  Handl  and  Haydn  Society  of  Boston  came 
to  its  assistance  with  a  donation  of  several  hundred  volumes 
for  its  library.  A  concert  was  announced  in  the  spring  of 
1873  in  the  Congregational  Church,  near  Union  Park,  on  the 
West  Side,  but  on  the  night  before  the  concert  the  church 
was  destroyed  by  fire,  with  all  the  music  and  instruments  of 
the  society.  Some  steps  were  taken  to  keep  up  the  organiza- 
tion, but  its  misfortunes  had  been  too  great,  and  it  ceased  to 
exist.  But  soon  there  was  a  new  ray  of  hope.  The  inhabi- 
tants of  Chicago  had  quickly  recovered  from  the  effects  of 
the  terrible  blow,  and  showed  unexampled  energy  in  rebuild- 
ing the  city.  As  if  by  magic  new  residences  and  commercial 
palaces  arose  from  the  debris  and  ruins,  trade  and  commerce 
revived,  wages  were  high,  and  the  newly-acquired  wealth 
created  a  desire  for  adorning  life  by  the  fine  arts.  The  Ger- 
mania  Msennerchor,  under  Julius  Fuchs  as  director,  found  a 
new  home  in  the  Greenebaum  building,  and  resumed  its  former 
activity,  although  on  a  smaller  scale. 

Of  especial  importance  in  the  musical  development  of 
Chicago  was  the  organization  of  the  "Apollo  Musical  Club," 
early  in  the  summer  of  1872.  George  P.  Upton  was  its  presi- 
dent, and  S.  G.  Pratt  the  conductor.  The  office  of  conductor 
afterwards  passed  into  the  hands  of  Mr.  A.  W.  Dohn,  a 
thorough  musician,  who  tried  to  make  the  Apollo  club  a 
Meennerchor  after  the  fashion  of  the  German  societies.  Of 
the  original  number,  no  one  ever  dreamed  that  the  club  would 
attain  the  exalted  position  which  it  enjoys  at  present,  not 
only  in  Chicago,  but  in  the  whole  country.  Its  first  con- 
cert was  given  January  2ist  at  Standard  Hall,  and  the  singing 
was  so  excellent  that  none  of  the  German  societies  could  have 
competed  with  it.  Mr.  Dohn  soon  resigned  the  conductorship 
of  the  club  to  W.  L.  Tomlins.  Under  the  new  leader  its 
development  was  rapid.  Mr.  Tomlins  was  not  only  a  thor- 

222 


ough  musician,  but  had  the  personal  magnetism  necessary  to 
make  a  great  society.  He  soon  developed  the  highest  ability 
as  a  choral  leader,  and  to-day  stands  unrivalled  in  this  line  of 
work.  He  not  only  changed  the  whole  style  of  the  club's  sing- 
ing, but  made  it  a  mixed,  instead  of  a  male  chorus.  The  popu- 
larity of  the  concerts  was  phenomenal  and  constantly  increased. 
They  were  given  exclusively  for  its  associate  members, 
and  the  number  of  these  rapidly  grew.  The  society  dedicated 
McCormick's  Hall,  in  the  North  Division,  then  the  Central 
Music  Hall  on  State  street,  and  in  1889  the  great  Auditorium. 
In  its  repertory  are  to  be  found  nearly  all  the  standard  works  of 
the  great  masters  of  ancient  and  modern  times,  and  it  produced 
recently  some  new  works  for  the  first  time  in  America — among 
them  Becker's  "  Reformation  Cantata,"  Sullivan's  "The 
Golden  Legend,"  the  "  Te  Deum,"  by  Berlioz.  Not 
content  with  such  brilliant  achievements,  it  instituted  in 
1882-1884,  in  connection  with  Theodore  Thomas,  grand 
musical  festivals  at  the  Exposition  building,  with  the  assistance 
of  such  celebrities  as  Materna,  Nielsson,  Gary  and  Winkelmann 
Toedt,  Remmertz,  Whitney,  Scaria.  It  had  a  chorus  of  one 
thousand  singers  and  an  orchestra  of  120  musicians.  The 
club  is  at  present  in  the  most  flourishing  condition,  giving  to  its 
associate  members  several  concerts  every  season.  These  con- 
certs are  always  repeated  for  the  wage  workers.  The  num- 
ber of  its  activj  members  is  five  hundred.  It  can  successfully 
compete  with  any  similar  European  organization,  and  proba- 
bly surpasses  them  all  in  efficiency.  To  George  P.  Upton, 
the  club's  first  president,  the  cause  of  art  in  Chicago  is  much 
indebted.  Mr.  Upton  is  an  art  critic  of  rare  ability  and  has 
always  given  the  heartiest  support  to  the  advancement  of  the 
musical  interests  of  the  city.  His  just  criticisms  and  his  keen 
appreciation  of  all  that  is  excellent,  have  been  a  source  of 
inspiration  and  encouragement  to  local  artists,  especially. 

Balatka  returned  from  Milwaukee  in  the   fall  of  1873  and 
organized  the  Chicago  Liederkranz,  which  not  only  inaugu- 

223 


rated  successful  concerts  at  the  North  Side  Turner  Hall,  but 
in  1874,  produced  at  McVicker's  theatre,  the  opera  of  "Mas- 
aniello,"  which  was  equally  successful  from  an  artistic  and  finan- 
cial standpoint.  About  the  same  time  another  American 
society,  the  "  Beethoven  Society,"  came  into  existence.  Mr- 
Carl  Wolfssohn,  the  leader,  was  a  musician  of  excellent  taste, 
a  fine  pianist  and  a  great  admirer  of  Beethoven.  The  society 
existed  for  about  six  years,  during  which  period  it  produced 
such  works  as :  Mendelssohn's  "  Elijah  "  and  "  Loreley  "  and 
Verdi's  "  Requiem,"  Bruch's  "  Odysseus "  and  "  Lay  of 
the  Bell,"  and  Hoffmann's  "  Melusine "  and  "  Cinderella." 
Although  the  society  prospered  at  first,  the  rivalry  of  the 
Apollo  Club  at  length  proved  too  much  for  it  and  it  dis- 
banded. 

The  great  commercial  crisis  of  1873  was  not  without  its 
influence  upon  matters  of  art.  The  general  necessity  for  strict 
economy  left  nothing  for  the  support  of  the  arts.  The  ILied- 
erkranz  went  under  and  the  other  German  society  languished. 
A  new  musical  club,  the  "  Abt  Society,"  was  organized  in 
1876  from  the  ranks  of  the  best  American  singers,  with  C. 
Loesch  as  director.  It  was,  however,  composed  of  only  solo 
singers,  who  would  not  submit  to  the  indispensable  choral  dis- 
cipline, and  disbanded  in  1879,  after  having  given  several  good 
concerts  at  McCormick's  Hall.  In  1877,  the  first  series  of 
summer  night  concerts  was  inaugurated  by  George  B.  Car- 
penter at  the  Exposition  building,  with  Theodore  Thomas  as 
conductor.  These  concerts  proved  very  successful  until  1891, 
when  the  Exposition  building  was  torn  down  to  make  room  for 
the  new  Art  Institute.  Ten  years  ago  chamber  music  received 
particular  attention  in  Chicago.  The  Trio  evenings,  given 
by  Carl  Wolfssohn,  the  classical  concerts  of  Adolph  Liese- 
gang  and  the  chamber  music  soirees  of  Mr.  Clarence  Eddy  and 
William  Lewis,  in  connection  with  Miss  Agnes  Ingersoll,  were 
especially  noteworthy.  Mr.  Wolfssohn's  concerts  are  still 
an  attraction  every  season.  In  the  year  1881,  Chicago  was 

224 


again  honored  with  the  authority  to  organize  another  of  the 
great  musical  festivals  of  the  North  American  Saengerbund. 
Besides  the  usual  male  choruses  a  grand  mixed  chorus  was  to 
participate  in  the  event.  The  president  of  the  festival  was 
Lewis  Wahl,  and  the  conductor  was  Hans  Balatka.  Singers 
of  great  reputation  were  engaged;  among  them,  Madam 
Peschka-Leutner,  soprano;  Miss  Gary,  alto;  Messrs.  Candidus, 
tenor;  Remmertz,  baritone;  Whitney,  basso.  The  first  concert 
was  given  Wednesday,  June  2pth,  in  the  Exposition  building, 
when  Bruch's  "  Odysseus "  was  produced  with  a  mixed 
chorus  of  1 200  singers  from  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  Cincin- 
nati, accompanied  by  an  orchestra  of  150  pieces.  On  the 
following  Thursday  the  male  chorus  sang  alone.  When  the 
grand  chorus  of  2200  men  opened  with  Moehring's  "  Prayer 
before  the  Battle,"  an  indescribable  enthusiasm  prevailed  in  the 
audience.  Such  an  overpowering  body  of  sound  nobody  had 
ever  heard  before.  Equally  effective  was  the  singing  of  the 
other  choruses :  "  Salamis,"  by  Max  Bruch,  and  "  The  Con- 
secration of  Solomon's  Temple,"  by  Titl.  Everything  indi- 
cated the  grand  success  of  the  festival.  But  fate  had  decreed 
otherwise.  On  Saturday  morning,  July  2d,  during  rehearsal, 
came  the  terrible  news  of  the  assassination  of  President  Gar- 
field,  and  all  enthusiasm  was  at  an  end.  The  concert  in  the 
evening,  at  which  Beethoven's  ninth  Symphony  and  scenes  from 
Wagner's  "  Lohengrin  "  were  given,  found  no  sympathetic 
ear,  although  the  most  famous  soloists  in  the  world  took  part 
in  it. 

It  seemed  now  that  the  idea  to  give  Chicago  a  society 
after  the  manner  of  the  Liederkranz  and  Arion  of  New  York 
was  about  to  reach  its  fulfillment.  A  movement  was  set  on 
foot  to  combine  the  German  singers  in  the  Germania  Maenner- 
chor,  which  had  given  much  encouragement  to  the  festival  of 
1881.  But  opposing  elements  arose  and  defeated  the  plan,  at 
the  same  time  striking  a  blow  at  the  cultivation  of  German 
song  in  Chicago.  For,  whereas,  the  vocal  forces  of  native 

is  225 


Americans  became  more  and  more  united  until  the  Apollo  club 
grew  to  be  the  one  great  exponent  of  choral  music,  the  German 
forces  have  gradually  scattered.  There  are  remaining,  how- 
ever, some  good  German  societies  which  give  occasional 
concerts.  Among  them  are:  The  Germania,  Concordia, 
Sennefelder  Liederkranz,  Orpheus  Masnnerchor,  Teutonia, 
Fidelia,  Liedertafel  Vorwaerts,  Frohsinn  and  North  Chicago 
Liedertafel. 

A  leading  feature  of  Chicago's  musical  life  is  the  Amateur 
Musical  club,  members  of  which  are  exclusively  ladies  highly 
accomplished  in  music.  It  numbers  about  two  hundred  active 
and  five  hundred  associate  members.  It  arranges  fourteen 
concerts  every  season,  seven  of  which  are  for  the  active  mem- 
bers only,  and  the  other  seven  for  the  entire  membership. 
Besides  these  concerts,  this  club  gives  several  entertainments 
each  season  for  the  benefit  of  charitable  institutions.  Among 
the  musical  events  of  the  last  period,  the  three  of  overshadow- 
ing importance  are  the  grand  opera  festival  of  three  weeks' 
duration  at  the  Exposition  building  in  1885,  with  Pattias  prima 
donna;  the  opening  of  the  Auditorium,  December  9, 1889,  by  the 
Abbey  and  Grau  Italian  opera  company,  with  Patti  again  princi- 
pal; and  the  organization  of  the  Chicago  Orchestral  associa- 
tion under  Theodore  Thomas. 

The  Auditorium  is  one  of  the  largest  and  best  equipped 
opera  houses  in  the  world.  Its  interior  is  not  surpassed  in 
elegance  and  comfort  anywhere,  and  its  acoustics  are  admira- 
ble. For  large  political  meetings  it  will  accommodate  an 
audience  of  5000,  but  by  an  ingenious  contrivance  this 
capacity  can  be  reduced  for  purposes  of  grand  opera 
and  for  ordinary  plays.  The  Chicago  Orchestral  associ- 
ation was  formed  in  1891  by  fifty  citizens  of  Chicago,  who 
guaranteed  its  expense  for  three  years  by  subscribing  a  fund 
of  $150.000.  The  trustees  of  the  association  are  N.  K.  Fair- 
bank,  C.  N.  Fay,  E.  B.  McCagg,  E.  D.  Hamill  and  A.  C. 
Bartlett.  The  officers  are:  N.  K.  Fairbank,  president:  C. 

226 


N.  Fay,  vice-president;  P.  A.  McEwan,  treasurer,  and  Milward 
Adams,  manager.  Theodore  Thomas  was  engaged  to  take 
the  orchestra  in  charge,  and  now  makes  Chicago  his  home. 
The  orchestra  gives  twenty  first-class  concerts  annually,  each  of 
which  is  preceded  by  a  so-called  public  rehearsal,  at  which  the 
entire  programme  of  the  following  concert  is  given.  The 
first  season  was  financially  unsuccessful,  but  the  second 
showed  a  great  improvement  in  this  respect.  From 
the  first,  the  work  of  Chicago's  new  orchestra  was, 
artistically  considered,  most  excellent.  The  entire  credit 
for  its  accurate  conception  and  splendid  execution  is  due 
to  its  celebrated  leader,  Theodore  Thomas,  who  resigned 
the  leadership  of  the  Metropolitan  Orchestra  in  New  York 
to  organize  the  greater  Chicago  institution.  Under 
Mr.  Thomas'  management  the  work  of  Chicago's  orchestra 
compares  favorably  with  similar  organizations  both  in  Europe 
and  America.  His  fidelity  to  the  Wagner  school  and  his 
marked  preference  for  the  severer  classical  music  at  first 
detracted  from  the  popular  appreciation  of  the  work  of  the 
great  orchestra  under  his  control.  But  the  masses  were 
quick  to  feel  the  educating  stimulus  of  his  work  and  the  result 
must  be  highly  gratifying  to  Mr.  Thomas. 

Owing  to  his  position  as  one  of  America's  leading  musicians, 
Mr.  Thomas  was  chosen  as  the  musical  director  of  the 
World's  Fair.  Mr.  Tomlins  was  made  choral  director.  They 
have  made  extensive  arrangements  for  the  work  in  their 
department,  and  the  cause  of  music  in  Chicago  will  receive 
the  greatest  impetus  during  the  World's  Fair  period. 

As  disseminators  of  musical  taste  and  culture,  the 
numerous  music  schools  and  art  institutes  finally  deserve 
a  special  mention,  most  of  them  being  provided  with 
excellent  and  conscientious  teachers.  The  prominent  among 
these  institutes  are  the  American  Conservatory  of  Music, 
Apollo  Musical  school,  Athenaeum,  Balatka  Academy  of 
Musical  Art,  Chicago  Conservatory,  Chicago  Musical  Col- 


lege,  Gottschalk's  School  of  Lyric  Art,  National  Conservatory 
of  Music  and  F.  W.  Root's  Music  school.  One  of 
the  potent  promoters  of  musical  art  and  education  in 
Chicago  is  the  Newberry  Library.  It  was  endowed 
by  Walter  L.  Newberry,  and  a  great  part  of  the  endow- 
ment is  devoted  to  the  enlargement  of  its  musical  equip- 
ment. The  works  there  that  have  an  especial  interest  for 
musicians  include  a  great  number  of  oratorios,  operas,  cantatas, 
symphonies  and  chamber  music,  in  most  cases,  with  vocal  and 
instrumental  parts,  biographies,  histories  of  music,  musical  dic- 
tionaries, history  of  instruments  and  instrumentation,  letters 
and  writings  of  musicians,  special  editions  of  rare  volumes 
and  all  prominent  works  published  by  subscriptions.  The 
rarest  work  in  the  whole  collection  is  probably  the 
original  edition  of  the  opera  of  "  Euridice,"  by  Taiopo  Peri, 
printed  at  Florence  in  1600.  It  was  the  first  opera  that  was 
ever  performed,  and  it  is  believed  that  the  Chicago  copy  is 
the  only  one  of  the  edition  of  1600  now  in  existence.  It  was 
purchased  at  Florence  at  a  high  price.  The  great  advantage 
which  this  library  offers  to  the  student  is  that  he  can  study 
musical  literature  and  history  from  original  sources,  without  the 
necessity  of  going  abroad.  For  the  cultivation  of  the  drama  the 
later  Chicago  has  erected  over  twenty  new  theatres  of  great 
splendor,  in  which  many  works  of  true  art  are  performed.  More 
than  one  of  the  modern  stock  companies  have  favored  Chi- 
cago with  the  first  productions  of  some  of  the  cleverest  Eng- 
lish and  American  comedies,  which  afterwards  found  great 
favor  with  audiences  in  the  east  and  in  England.  Enterpris- 
ing dramatic  managers  *  have  thus  recognized  Chicago's 
importance  among  American  centers  for  the  drama. 

The  fine  arts  have  enjoyed  for  many  years  a  fostering  care 
from  the  Chicago  Art  Institute,  formerly  situated  at  the  corner 
of  Van  Buren  street  and  Michigan  avenue,  but  now  about  to 
occupy  a  magnificent  new  building  on  the  Lake  Front  at  the 
foot  of  Adams  street.  This  new  temple  of  art  is  a  pride  to 

230 


the  eye  of  every  citizen  of  Chicago,  and  will  be  one  of  the 
enduring  forces  to  turn  the  public  mind  toward  higher  culture, 
and  to  enlarge  and  dignify  the  artistic  and  aesthetic  element  in 
Chicago  life.  Valuable  works  of  art,  both  in  painting  and 
sculpture,  are  collected  there  (some  original  and  more  copies, 
ancient  and  modern)  through  the  munificence  of  wealthy 
patrons.  The  rooms,  which  are  certainly  designed  with 
as  much  wisdom  as  those  of  any  art  building  in  the  world,  are 
open  to  the  student  as  well  as  to  the  general  public  every 
day.  On  Sundays  access  to  the  galleries  is  free.  Among  the 
greater  works  there  are  original  masterpieces  by  Murillo, 
Van  Dyke,  Rembrandt  and  Rubens. 

It  is  apparent  that  Chicago's  growth  in  lines  of  the  fine  arts 
has  been  an  arduous  progress,  impeded  by  many  reverses  and 
painful  disappointments,  but  crowned  often  with  a  flattering 
degree  of  success.  No  small  glory  has  the  city  won  in  its 
efforts  to  cultivate  matters  of  art  and  keep  them  apace  with 
its  development  in  commerce  and  industry,  but  the  future 
has  much  to  accomplish  in  order  to  place  the  city  at  the 
head  of  American  centers  of  art.  The  past  four  years 
have  been  years  of  marvellous  strides  in  that  direction  and 
give  reason,  not  only  for  hopefulness  in  the  work  yet  to  be 
accomplished,  but  also  for  pride  in  the  work  already  done. 


231 


The   Public   Library. 

There  is  perhaps  no  public  institution  in  this  country  that 
has  had  so  wonderful  a  development  as  the  public  library. 
While  as  yet  we  have  not  the  largest  libraries,  we  have  the 
most  useful.  Collections  of  books  for  the  use  of  the  masses 
are  justly  called  "the  universities  of  the  people,"  and  their 
educational  influence  upon  the  people  cannot  be  measured. 
The  knowledge  books  impart  is,  as  a  rule,  concise  and  compact, 
and  libraries  have,  therefore,  an  advantage  over  schools. 
Schools  need  the  positive  individual  learning  of  the  teachers 
and  their  practical  skill  to  impart  it,  and  in  proportion  to  these 
they  are  successful  in  accomplishing  their  ends,  while  mere 
technical  knowledge  and  skill  on  part  of  the  administration 
suffice  to  make  a  library  comparatively  useful.  This,  in  con- 
junction with  the  energy  and  generosity  of  the  American 
people,  explains  the  marvellous  development  of  the  American 
libraries. 

It  is  perfectly  natural  that  the  public  library  of  Chicago 
should  have  surpassed  those  of  its  older  sister  cities.  Its  his- 
tory is  but  a  parallel  to  the  history  of  the  city  itself.  The 
library  is  to-day  by  far  the  most  used  in  the  land.  The 
use  of  a  library — that  is,  its  conditional  usefulness — is 
dependent  partly  on  the  completeness  of  its  collection  and 
partly  upon  the  character  of  its  administration.  The  Chi- 
cagoans,  then,  have  every  reason  to  be  proud  of  the  former 
and  to  be  satisfied  with  the  latter.  But  the  Chicago  Pub- 
lic Library  can  show  in  its  favor,  besides  these  subjective 
conditions,  also  objective  proofs  of  its  excellency  and  supe- 
riority. Among  these  it  will  suffice  to  mention  the  fact  that  the 
library  received  the  award  of  a  gold  medal  at  the  Paris  Inter- 
national Exposition  of  1889,  the  only  distinction  ever  awarded 

232 


to  an  American  library  at  any  competitive  international  expo- 
sition. But  the  library  speaks  best  for  itself.  The  beginnings 
were  small  and  the-  conditions  the  most  adverse  imaginable. 
We  will  have  to  go  back  somewhat  beyond  the  beginnings 
of  the  present  institution  in  order  to  understand  how  it  grew. 
Just  as  a  private  library,  collected  and  used  by  its  owner,  indi- 
cates the  degree  of  the  latter's  mental  acquirements,  so  public 
libraries  indicate  the  mental  status  of  a  community.  The 
history,  then,  of  the  efforts  of  a  community  in  this  direction  is 
of  the  utmost  importance,  and  it  may  even  be  said  to  be  its 
actual  history,  since  the  visible  happenings  are  but  the  effects  of 
the  invisible  causes  in  the  life  of  entire  communities  as  well 
as  of  individuals.  It  is  natural  that  the  material  interests  of  the 
young  city  required  at  first  all  the  time  and  energy  of  its 
inhabitants.  But  no  sooner  was  the  material  existence  of  the 
commonwealth  assured  than  the  mental  needs  of  the  people 
began  to  assert  themselves.  Those  who  recognized  and  were 
in  position  to  do  anything  towards  satisfying  these  needs,  made 
various  efforts  in  that  direction.  How  numerous  were  the 
obstacles  and  how  great  the  difficulties  in  a  young  community 
working  out  its  own  existence,  can  be  understood  only  by 
those  who  know  the  circumstances  produced  by  entirely 
new  political  and  social  conditions.  The  population  of  the 
young  city  was  very  peculiar,  and,  in  a  commonwealth  of  such 
magnitude,  without  precedent.  It  had  not  grown  in  the  normal 
way  and  was  not  composed  of  elements  of  kindred  descent 
and  homogeneous  nature.  The  majority  of  those  to 
whom  the  city  is  indebted  for  what  it  is  to-day,  had 
come  here  in  riper  years  from  other  parts  of  the  United 
States  and  from  foreign  countries.  What  this  heterogene- 
ous mass  of  people  possessed  in  the  way  of  intellectual 
treasures  was  as  different  as  their  outward  qualities,  and,  in 
the  case  of  a  great  many  of  them  was  very  insignificant.  The 
schools  sufficed,  it  is  true,  to  give  to  the  children  of  the  settlers 
a  common,  practical  education,  but  they  could  not  do  anything 

233 


toward  satisfying  the  mental  needs  of  the  adult  portion  of  the 
population.  The  less  so  as  these  were  compelled  as  yet  to 
employ  their  entire  time  for  their  material  necessities.  Churches, 
too,  of  all  denominations,  grew  up  rapidly,  but  the  church  and 
other  similar  moral  institutions  have  but  a  one-sided  educa- 
tional influence  upon  the  mental  faculties  of  man. 

Public  lectures  which  have  for  their  object  the  mental 
development  and  training  of  the  masses,  and  public  institu- 
tions of  like  tendency,  as  the  theatre,  the  museum  and  other 
"high  schools  of  the  liberal  arts,"  can  nowhere  do  less  than 
in  a  young  community  in  which  the  fermentation  is  still  going 
on — and  this  is  so  partly  because  their  efforts  must  needs  be 
of  a  general  nature,  requiring  in  all  the  same  grade  of  mental 
culture,  and  partly  because  they  consume  more  time  than  the 
people  can  spare.  Under  such  conditions,  then,  no  educating 
power  is  left  but  literature,  and  no  other  means  to  make  it 
accessible  to  all  the  people  but  free  public  libraries.  And  it  is 
in  this  direction,  therefore,  that  we  see  turned  the  efforts  of 
those  who  had  recognized  the  mental  needs  of  Chicago's 
early  population.  Before  the  great  fire  these  efforts  were 
only  occasional  and  individual,  and  being  often  prompted  by  per- 
sonal ambition  or  other  egotistic  motives,  met  with  but  little 
success.  There  were,  in  fact,  but  three  libraries  worth  men- 
tioning, and  after  the  fire,  which  destroyed  them  all,  none 
were  re-opened.  These  libraries,  those  of  the  Chicago  His- 
torical Society,  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  and  the 
Young  Men's  Library  Association,  had  in  no  way  been 
adequate  to  the  needs  of  the  people.  The  Young  Men's 
Library  Association  had  had  a  very  promising  beginning,  and 
was  fairly  under  way  to  become  what  a  public  library  should 
be.  Its  first  president  was  Walter  L.  Newberry,  who  by  his 
later  bequest  of  over  three  million  dollars,  has  given  the  city 
the  great  Newberry  Library,  which,  under  the  able  and 
experienced  management  of  Dr.  William  F.  Poole,  is  rapidly 
coming  to  the  front  rank  of  American  libraries.  Quite  a  num- 


her  of  Chicago's  best,  most  cultured  and  wealthiest  citizens 
also  belonged  to  the  association  that  had  established  this 
library.  But  Illinois  had  at  that  time  no  library  law  and  the 
Chicago  Library  was,  therefore,  a  subscription  library,  and, 
having  no  certain  income  adequate  to  its  requirements,  was  of 
but  limited  usefulness  and  unable  to  comply  with  the  increas- 
ing demands  upon  it.  At  the  time  of  the  fire  it  was  heavily 
in  debt.  That  the  unsatisfactory  condition  of  affairs  was  fully 
appreciated  will  be  seen  from  the  following  extract  from  the 
Chicago  Tribune,  of  September  10,  1871,  a  month  before  the 
fire: 

"We  are  a  community  of  nearly  350,000  inhabitants,  and  have  absolutely  no  public 
library  deserving  the  name.  Not  only  is  there  no  library  in  this  city  where  a 
scholar  could  solve  a  difficult  question  in  literature,  or  art  or  science,  or  where  an  edu- 
cated man,  to  whom  reading  and  study  are  a  necessity,  could  find  books  to  satisfy  his 
modest  desires.but  there  is  not  even  one  where  he  who  wants  to  get  a  common  educa- 
tion could  find  the  means  to  this  end.  *  *  Chicago  has  no  lack  of  educated  people, 
but  they  are  chiefly  among  those  classes  who  do  not  enjoy  the  means  necessary  to  acquire 
a  library  of  their  own.  But  even  if  that  were  not  so,  the  blame  would  nevertheless  be 
attached  to  us  as  a  civilized  community,  for  not  being  in  possession  of  a  public  library." 

But  the  agitators  for  a  public  library  had  not  rested.  Just 
before  the  fire,  strenuous  efforts  had  been  made,  and  a  bill 
presented  to  the  State  Legislature  by  William  H.  King, 
of  Chicago.  This  provided  that  free  public  libraries  be 
established  in  the  larger  cities  of  the  state,  to  be  maintained 
by  general  taxation.  But  the  intended  results  of  all  these 
efforts  were  frustrated  by  the  vigilant  and  active  opposition  of 
a  strong  minority  of  the  tax-payers,  who  lacked  that  unselfish- 
ness and  public  spirit  which  are  the  very  essence  and  found- 
ation of  a  democratic  commonwealth.  Then  came  the  fire  and 
wiped  out  of  existence  the  makeshift  libraries  that  had,  in  a 
measure,  hidden  the  urgent  necessity  for  a  first-class  public 
institution.  But  it  did  more.  It  also  paralyzed  the  opposition 
to  a  free  public  library  by  widening  the  bonds  of  sympathy 
on  the  one  hand,  and  by  directing  the  attention  of  some  of  the 
opponents  to  their  own  interests  on  the  other.  Schiller  says 
that  "  man  grows  with  his  higher  aims,"  and  this  applies  also 
to  communities  of  men.  The  new  city  had  to  be  built  up 

235 


again  upon  a  broader  basis  and  in  accordance  with  a  higher 
plan.  Some  were  still  in  hopes  that  the  "  Chicago  Library  " 
could  be  re-established.  Mr.  Robson,  the  former  librarian  of 
that  institution,  took  the  utmost  pains  to  revive  the  interest  of 
the  officers  of  his  association.  Fortunately  it  was  soon  recog- 
nized that  a  city  like  Chicago  must  have  a  public  library,  and 
Mr.  Robson  himself  was  quite  willing  to  go  to  England,  his 
native  land,  in  the  interest  of  the  free  public  library,  which 
it  was  proposed  to  establish.  Meanwhile  the  great  misfortune 
that  had  visited  Chicago  had  called  forth  the  warmest  sympa- 
thy in  England,  where  it  was  decided  to  send  to  Chicago  a 
miscellaneous  collection  of  books,  to  form  the  nucleus  of  a  new 
library.  At  the  head  of  this  movement  stood  Thomas 
Hughes,  assisted  by  men  like  Disraeli  and  Burgess,  and  high 
and  low,  from  the  Queen  down  to  the  most  humble  man  of 
the  people,  took  an  interest  and  part  in  it.  Many  a  compara- 
tively poor  man  contributed  towards  the  noble  and  lasting 
monument  his  country  was  about  to  erect  to  itself  in  the  new 
world.  Contributions  poured  in  upon  a  call  from  Hughes  and 
Burgess,  the  president  and  secretary  of  the  executive  com- 
mittee, that  had  been  at  once  formed.  During  this  time, 
however,  the  people  in  Chicago  were  by  no  means  idle.  A 
plan  for  the  proposed  people's  library  was  worked  out  and 
the  necessary  steps  were  taken  for  its  immediate  execution. 
A  number  of  competent  and  experienced  men  drew  up  proper 
bills  to  be  substituted  to  the  Legislature,  so  that  the  cause 
might  not  be  delayed  when  the  proper  time  came.  The  first 
public  action  was  January  5,  1873,  when  twenty-eight  promi- 
nent citizens  requested  Mayor  Joseph  Medill  to  call  a  general 
mass  meeting  of  the  citizens  of  Chicago,  for  the  purpose  of 
establishing  a  free  public  library. 

On  Monday  evening,  January  8,  1872,  a  meeting  was  held 
in  Plymouth  Church,  and  the  matter  thoroughly  discussed. 
Many  thought  that  such  a  library  could  be  supported  only 
through  private  munificence,  but  Mr.  Daniel  L.  Shorey,  an 

236 


experienced  lawyer  and  later  president  of  the  library  board, 
expressed  himself  decidedly  and  strongly  in  favor  of  public 
taxation  for  the  purpose.  This  brought  decision  and  clearness 
into  the  deliberations.  No  one,  perhaps,  had  given  the  sub- 
ject as  much  thought  as  Mr.  Shorey,  so  his  arguments,  ably 
and  clearly  presented,  convinced  all.  Thereupon  Mr.  E.  C. 
Larned  presented  a  resolution,  which  was  at  once  adopted, 
giving  it  as  the  sense  of  the  meeting  that  "a  free  public 
library  was  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  best  interests  and 
welfare  of  the  people  of  Chicago,  and  that  the  present  time 
was  the  most  favorable  for  its  establishment."  The  resolution 
further  called  upon  the  people  of  the  city  for  active  assistance 
in  carrying  out  the  plan,  and  expressed  to  Mr.  Hughes  and 
the  English  friends  associated  with  him,  the  warmest  thanks 
of  the  meeting.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  Mr.  Larned,  in 
his  speech  introducing  his  resolution,  expressed  himself  very 
decidedly  in  favor  of  Dearborn  Park  as  the  best  site  for 
the  library — the  very  place  where  now,  twenty-one  years 
after  that  meeting  and  after  long  years  of  struggle  for  the 
spot,  the  new  library  building  is  being  erected.  By  another 
resolution  the  mayor  was  empowered  to  appoint  a  committee  to 
at  once  take  steps  necessary  to  the  establishment  of  such 
library,  to  prepare  bills  for  the  Legislature,  and  to  further  the 
project  with  all  possible  energy  and  speed.  This  committee 
consisted  of  Messrs.  Thomas  Hoyne,  W.  E.  Doggett,  E.  C. 
Larned,  S.  S.  Hayes,  James  Warrack,  D.  L.  Shorey,  J.  M. 
Walker,  W.  B.  Ogden,  Henry  Greenebaum,  George  S. 
Bowen,  Judge  Henry  Booth,  Levi  Z.  Leiter,  George  Schneider, 
Edwin  L.  Brown,  Wm.  Bross,  Jno.  V.  Farwell,  C.  H.  McCor- 
mick,  Julius  Rosenthal,  J.  Y.  Scammon,  Carter  H.  Harrison. 
Now  the  work  was  begun  in  good  earnest.  All  the  gentle- 
men on  the  committee  were  men  of  great  experience  and 
uncommon  energy,  and  were  well  acquainted  with  all  legal 
forms  and  requirements.  The  first  great  result  of  their  work 
was  a  law  passed  by  the  Legislature  of  the  state  as  early  as 

237 


February  22,  1872,  which  empowered  the  council  of  each 
incorporated  city  in  Illinois  "  to  establish  and  maintain  a  public 
library  and  reading  room  for  the  use  and  benefit  of  the  inhab- 
itants of  such  city,  and  to  levy  a  tax  of  not  to  exceed  one  mill 
and  in  large  cities  one-fifth  of  one  mill  annually."  The  law 
provided  further  that  every  such  library  was  to  be  governed 
by  a  board  of  directors  of  nine  members,  to  be  appointed  by 
the  mayor  and  confirmed  by  the  council.  The  law  went  into 
effect  the  yth  of  March  of  the  same  year,  and  immediately 
thereafter  the  city  council  of  Chicago  adopted  an  ordinance 
creating  a  "free  public  library"  and  providing  for  its  estab- 
lishment and  maintenance  in  every  particular.  At  the  next 
meeting  the  mayor  sent  in  the  names  of  nine  of  the  most 
prominent  citizens  of  Chicago,  whom  he  had  appointed 
to  compose  the  first  board  of  directors  of  the  public  library. 
These  gentlemen  were:  Thomas  Hoyne,  Robert  T.  Queal 
and  Daniel  L.  Shorey,  to  serve  one  year,  Willard  Woodard, 
Elliott  Anthony,  Julius  Rosenthal,  to  serve  two  years,  and 
Hermann  Raster,  James  W.  Sheehan,  Samuel  S.  Hayes,  to 
serve  three  years.  The  unequal  terms  are  explained  by  the 
provisions  of  the  law  requiring  the  appointment  of  three 
directors  each  year,  the  term  of  office  to  be  three  years.  The 
appointment  of  the  nine  gentlemen  mentioned  was  promptly 
confirmed  by  the  council.  A  great  deal  more  than  might  be 
supposed  depended  on  the  first  work  in  the  direction  of  mak- 
ing the  library  a  real  public  library — a  library  for  the  people. 
The  present  admirable  condition,  popularity  and  usefulness 
of  the  institution  is  in  no  small  degree  due  to  the  founda- 
tion laid  by  the  first  board.  Literature  is  of  universal 
character;  it  is  the  common  property  of  mankind  and 
its  mission  is  therefore  an  international  one.  A  large  library 
cannot  confine  itself  to  a  particular  language,  except,  per- 
haps, in  the  lines  of  common,  domestic  literature.  The 
board  of  directors  of  the  Chicago  public  library  met  for  its 
first  session.  March  n,  1872,  and  organized  by  electing  its 

238 


officers  and  appointing  its  standing  committees.  Mr.  Thomas 
Hoyne,  who  had  shown  himself  very  zealous  in  the  cause,  was 
elected  president,  and  within  a  short  time  the  services  of  a 
capable  secretary  were  secured  in  the  person  of  William  B. 
Wickersham,  who  has  faithfully  served  the  board  and  the 
library  to  the  present  time  (1893 ) .  Everything  being  ready  for 
action,  great  zeal  and  energy  were  used  to  open  the  library  to 
the  public  at  as  early  a  date  as  possible.  The  first  aim  was  to 
equip  a  good  reading-room,  where  the  best  newspapers  and 
journals  of  the  world  could  be  consulted  by  every  one.  As 
early  as  January,  1873,  such  a  room  was  opened  and  became 
at  once  popular.  So  large  was  the  attendance  on  the  part  of 
the  general  public  that  no  less  than  50,035  persons  visited  the 
room  during  the  first  five  months.  But  this  was  only  the 
beginning!  Meanwhile,  the  books  began  to  pour  in  from 
England,  Germany,  France,  Ireland  and  Scotland.  Among 
them  were  very  valuable  gifts,  as,  for  instance,  the 
English  patent  reports,  a  complete  collection  of  2800  vol- 
umes sent  by  the  commissioners  of  British  patents.  This  collec- 
tion is  annually  augmented  by  1 40  volumes.  Learned  institutions, 
among  them  the  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  sent 
costly  contributions,  and  so  likewise  did  a  number  of  prominent 
individuals.  Most  of  the  books  coming  from  England  bear  the 
inscription  on  a  special  book-plate :  "  Presented  to  the  city  of 
Chicago,  towards  the  foundation  of  a  free  library,  after  the 
great  fire  of  1871,  as  a  mark  of  English  sympathy."  In  all, 
these  gifts  amounted  to  7000  volumes  from  England  and  about 
half  that  number  from  other  countries,  chiefly  from  Germany; 
5000  additional  volumes  were  purchased  the  first  year,  so 
the  library  proper  could  be  opened  to  the  public  on 
May  i,  1874.  1°  January  °f  tnat  year,  the  foremost  of 
American  librarians,  Dr.  William  F.  Poole,  who  was  called 
from  Cincinnati,  assumed  charge  of  the  institution.  When 
the  Newberry  library  was  organized,  Dr.  Poole  resigned 
his  position  to  go  to  the  new  institution,  and  Frederick 


Hild  was  made  librarian,  with  E.  F.  L.  Gauss,  assistant. 
How  great  and  how  general  the  need  of  a  free  public 
library  was  at  that  time,  and  how  heartily  it  was  welcomed  by 
the  masses,  is  shown  by  the  experience  of  the  institution 
during  its  first  weeks.  An  average  daily  circulation  of  138 
volumes  in  the  first  week  had  nearly  doubled  itself  in  the 
second,  and  in  the  fifth  amounted  to  555  volumes  daily.  This 
unparalleled  growth  is  the  more  remarkable  when  it  is  known 
that  the  Boston  public  library,  until  recently,  the  most  prosper- 
ous and  most  patronized  library  of  the  land,  circulated  at  the 
close  of  its  fifth  year  only  310  volumes  daily.  A  few  further 
figures  illustrating  the  wonderful  development  of  the  library, 
will  be  of  interest: 

v  No.  of  Vols.  in  No.  of  Vols.  cir- 

the  Library.  cufeted. 

1874 18,183 [first  month]  7,659 

1875 39,236 399,156 

1876 ...  49,024 424,030 

1877 51,408 428,090 

1878 57,984 429,506 

1879 60,423 558,428 

1880 67,722 416,751 

1881 77,140 468,801 

1882 87,272 479.977 

1883 94,606 525,883 

1884 106,341 622,313 

1885 111,621 651,469 

1886 119,510 766,056 

1887 129,129 835,295 

1888 132,946 993,339 

1889 149.1J6 1,078,210 

1890 156,242 1,225,784 

1891 166,475 1,265,117 

1892 177,178 1,414,469 

At  present  the  library  contains  187,000  volumes.  In  the 
preceding  figures  the  number  of  periodicals  used  in  the  several 
reading  rooms  is  not  included.  From  June  ist,  1891,  to 
June  ist,  1892,  the  number  of  these  circulated,  was  700,917. 
Besides  the  above  there, were  also  used  in  the  reading  rooms 
51,846  bound  volumes  of  periodicals  and  other  books.  In  point 
of  use  the  Chicago  public  library  is  now  the  first  in  the 
United  States.  In  the  year  1888  it  surpassed  the  Boston 
public  library,  until  then  the  foremost,  by  58,746  volumes  in 

240 


the  annual  circulation  of  books.  In  proportion  to  the  respect- 
ive number  of  volumes  the  two  libraries  then  contained,  this 
difference  appears  still  greater — the  Boston  library's  book  col- 
lection amounting  to  492,596  volumes  and  that  of  our  own  to 
but  132,946. 

When  an  institution,  coming  into  life  under  such  great  diffi- 
culties and  by  such  heavy  sacrifices,  has  finally  been  successfully 
established,  and  enters  upon  a  merely  natural  development 
and  existence,  the  more  interesting  part  of  its  history  has 
come  to  a  close,  and  further  interesting  features  can  be  found 
only  in  the  line  of  its  work  proper — either  in  method  or  effect. 

Of  utmost  interest  is  "the  modus  operandi  of  a  large  library, 
and  it  was  the  illustration  of  the  same,  in  all  its  details,  by  a 
systematic  arrangement  and  display  of  the  various  blanks  used, 
that  secured  for  the  Chicago  library  the  before  mentioned 
reward  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1889. 

A  library  that  is  not  complete  is  chiefly  dependent  for  its 
selection  of  further  books  upon  the  catalogues  of  antiqua- 
rians, book  auctions,  sales  of  private  libraries  and  occasional 
opportunities  to  purchase  stray  books.  As  a  rule,  current 
publications  are  not  the  most  valuable,  nor  are  they  the  most 
numerous  purchases  of  a  growing  library.  Large  libraries 
find  it  necessary  to  have  permanent  agents  at  the  several 
book-centers  of  the  world.  To  them,  the  orders  made  up 
from  various  sources,  are  sent  for  collection.  The  books  are 
generally  allowed  to  accumulate  and  are  then  shipped  in  con- 
signments of  several  cases.  When  the  books  arrive,  they  are 
carefully  examined  as  to  their  condition  and  correspondence 
with  the  order  and  are  then  checked  with  the  bill  or  other  list 
accompanying  the  shipment.  The  lot,  when  found  to  be  in 
order,  is  entered  in  the  so-called  "accession  catalogue,"  each 
single  book  or  work  receiving  a  separate  number.  The 
Chicago  public  library  has  improved  and  perfected  its  acces- 
sion catalogue  as  experience  suggested,  until  now  it  is  not 
infrequently  copied.  The  several  items  that  are  here  entered 

16 

241 


referring  to  each  book  or  work,  are  the  following:  after  the 
number,  are  columns  for  the  author  and  title,  the  place  of 
publication,  the  year,  the  number  of  copies  of  the  book  or 
work,  the  number  of  volumes  comprising  the  same,  either  new 
or  replacing  worn  out  and  lost  books,  number  of  pamphlets, 
size  of  book  or  pamphlet,  kind  of  binding,  source  of  acquisi- 
tion, purchase  price  and  remarks,  such  as  discount,  nature  of 
accession,  if  not  purchased,  etc.  In  this  way  a  complete 
description  of  the  book  is  recorded,  and  can  be  looked  up  any 
time  by  means  of  the  '•  accession  number,"  which,  together 
with  the  date  of  entry,  is  written  on  the  back  of  the  title  page 
of  the  entered  book.  Thereupon  the  book  is  catalogued  upon 
slips  of  even  size,  according  to  established  rules.  These  slips, 
arranged  alphabetically  under  their  main  parts,  comprise  the 
so-called  card  catalogue,  an  American  invention,  and  by  far 
the  most  famous  and  important  of  late  years  in  the  line  of 
library  economy.  It  would  fill  a  volume  to  go  into  all  the 
•details  of  cataloguing,  which  is  often  very  difficult  and  intricate, 
requiring  great  care,  untiring  pains,  good  judgment  and 
large  knowledge.  It  will  suffice  to  mention  here  the 
main  features  and  principles  of  the  system.  The  first  slip  or 
card  bears  upon  the  upper  line  the  name  of  the  author  of  the 
book  or  work,  with  complete  surname,  if  obtainable;  upon  the 
second  line  the  title  of  the  work,  and  on  the  next  the 
imprint  of  it,  i.  e.,  place  and  year  of  publication,  and  in  addi- 
tion, the  number  of  volumes  composing  the  work.-  This 
"  author  card "  is  distinguished  from  the  others  referring  to 
the  same  work  by  also  containing  the  "  accession  number,"- 
that  is,  the  number  under  which  the  book  was  originally 
entered.  Other  cards  are  either  "  title  cards,"  "  subject 
cards,"  or  "reference  cards,"  which  terms  explain  themselves. 
On  them  the  title  or  subject  or  that  to  which  "  reference  "  is 
made,  is  the  main  feature,  followed  by  the  author  and  the 
same  descriptive  detail  as  wras  placed  on  the  "  author  card." 
If  several  subjects  are  treated  of,  in  one  and  the  same  work, 

242 


"subject  cards"  are  made  under  each.  Every  card  also 
bears  the  shelf  letter  and  number.  A  single  example  will 
make  this  clear: 


B  1764 

SEEGER, 

EUGENE. 

125603 

Chicago  and 

the 

Columbian 

Exposition. 

Chicago,  1893. 

3  V 

in  2.    f 

vo. 

CHICAGO, 

B  1764 

and  the 

Columbian  Exposition.    E. 
Chicago.  1893.    3 

Seeger. 
v.  in  2.    8vo. 

COLUMBIAN  EXPOSITION,  1893. 
Chicago  and  the.    E.  Seeger. 
Chicago,  1893. 

B  1764 
3  v.  in  2.    8vo. 

It  is  seen  from  this  example  that  the  cataloguing  of  books 
requires  also  their  classification  and  numbering — the  former 
being  usually  signified  by  means  of  letters  under  which  main 
classes  are  arranged,  the  latter  by  successive  numbers  under 
each  letter.  This  arrangement  permits  of  a  general  and  sub- 
classification.  To  this  end  the  books  are  again  entered  in  the 
"shelf  lists,"  under  a  certain  number,  but  only  under  the 
author  and  title,  the  number  of  volumes  and  number  of  copies. 
A  memorandum  of  the  shelf-letter  and  number  is  also  made 
upon  the  back  of  the  title  page.  The  books  then  go  to  the 
printer,  where  they  are  stamped  and  otherwise  marked,  labeled 
and  numbered;  here  also  the  circulating  books  receive  a  card- 
pocket  on  the  inside  of  the  front  cover,  which  securely  holds 
the  book  borrower's  card.  The  books  are  then  ready  for  use 
in  the  several  departments  of  the  library.  In  the  reference 
and  reading  rooms  any  respectable  person  is  admitted  and 
books  and  periodicals  are  given  out  for  temporary  use  in  the 


243 


rooms.  To  draw  books  from  the  library  for  home  use  a  card 
is  necessary,  which  is  issued  to  residents  of  Chicago  and  those 
regularly  employed  there,  upon  the  guarantee  of  a  responsible 
tax-paying  resident  of  the  city.  The  card  entitles  the  holder 
to  draw  books  from  the  library  for  the  term  of  two  years,  one 
volume  at  a  time,  or  in  case  of  small-sized  volumes,  two  of  the 
same  work.  Each  book  may  be  retained  two  weeks,  and  may 
be  renewed  once.  If  a  book  is  not  returned  or  renewed  on 
time,  a  fine  of  three  cents  for  each  day  is  charged.  This  fine 
is  an  absolute  necessity  to  insure  the  prompt  return  of  books, 
since  popular  works  are  always  in  great  demand.  The 
amount  received  in  fines  last  year  was  not  less  than  $5,943.31. 
The  method  of  changing  books  is,  in  its  simplicity,  exceedingly 
interesting,  especially  when  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  the  daily 
average  circulation  is  in  the  neighborhood  of  4000  volumes. 
Whoever  desires  a  book,  presents  his  card  with  the  shelf- 
letters  and  numbers  of  several  books,  any  one  of  which  he 
wishes  to  draw,  or  the  letter  and  number  of  a  specific  book  he 
wants.  The  attendant  procures  the  book  desired  and  charges 
it  on  a  little  slip  which  bears  the  number  of  the  book.  These 
slips  are  afterwards  arranged  in  numerical  sequence  and  so 
kept  that  they  can  be  easily  found  when  the  books  are  returned. 
A  new  and  ingenious  device  has  recently  been  introduced  by 
which  is  determined  the  percentage  of  books  used  in  the  vari- 
ous departments. 

Recently  the  library  has  extended  the  sphere  of  its  useful- 
ness by  establishing  five  branch  reading  rooms  in  various  parts 
of  the  city.  Another  and  far  greater  step  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  institution  is  the  securing  of  a  suitable  site  for 
the  erection  of  a  new  library  building.  The  library  has  long 
needed  a  home  of  its  own,  and  in  fact  its  usefulness  has  to 
some  extent  been  impaired  by  the  inadequacy  of  its  quarters. 
For  ten  years  the  board  of  directors  have  been  indefatigable 
in  their  efforts  to  secure  a  site  for  the  new  home  of  the  insti- 
tution. No  suitable  site  could  be  purchased,  for  there  were 

244 


no  funds  available  for  such  a  purpose,  but  when,  recently, 
the  ownership  of  Dearborn  Park,  a  half  block  bounded  by 
Washington  and  Randolph  streets  and  Michigan  avenue,  was 
vested  in  the  city,  the  friends  of  the  library  secured  the  right 
from  the  municipal  authorities  to  build  on  this  property.  No 
better  location  could  have  been  secured,  and  after  a  compromise 
was  effected  with  the  Grand  Army  of  the  Republic,  which 
claimed  certain  rights  in  the  property,  preparations  for  building 
were  at  once  made.  It  was  agreed  that  the  library  board  should 
put  up  a  building  covering  the  entire  ground,  and  that  a  suitable 
part  of  the  same  should  be  set  aside  for  a  "  Soldiers'  and  Sail- 
ors' Memorial  Hall"  for  a  term  of  fifty  years,  after  the  expira- 
tion of  which  time  the  entire  building  and  site  is  to  revert  to 
the  public  library. 

After  the  first  victory,  a  still  greater  question  was  to  be 
solved  by  the  library  authorities :  How  are  the  means  for  build- 
ing to  be  procured?  To  this  question  there  was  but  one 
answer — by  taxation.  To  this  the  legislature  was  induced  to 
give  its  sanction  by  special  law,  giving  the  city  the  power  to 
increase  the  tax  for  the  library  from  ^  mill  to  two  mills 
annually  for  the  term  of  five  years.  This  gave  the  library  a 
little  over  one  and  one-half  million  dollars  for  building  purposes, 
and  insured  a  fine  and  well  equipped-  structure.  Then  the 
work  began  in  earnest.  A  prize  was  offered  for  the  best  plan 
and  the  competition  was  free  to  all.  The  best  design  was  sub- 
mitted by  Rutan,  Shipley  &  Coolidge — the  plans  calling  for  a 
severely  classic  structure  which  will,  nevertheless,  prove  a 
model  of  convenience  and  excellence.  The  foundations, 
already  laid,  are  remarkably  heavy  and  massive  and  will 
worthily  uphold  the  beautiful  building,  which,  according  to 
present  plans,  will  be  ready  for  occupancy  in  the  fall  of  1895. 


246 


The  Labor  Movement. 

HISTORY   OF  THE   EIGHT-HOUR  AGITATION. 

Chicago  is  even  now  enjoying  the  material  blessings  of  the 
future,  in  that  here  mechanical  industry  has  reached  that  high 
development  which  promises  to  coming  generations  a  pros- 
perity unknown  to  those  of  the  past.  In  use  of  labor-saving 
machinery  and  in  juster  distribution  of  the  benefits  derived 
therefrom,  Chicago  is  in  advance  of  the  age.  In  former  times 
the  working  man  had  no  empiric  knowledge  of  the  word  leis- 
ure; he  may  acquire  it  in  busy,  pushing,  practical  Chicago 
to-day. 

The  very  fact  that  capital  has  attained  such  enormous 
strength  in  commercial  Chicago  has  had  a  powerful  tendency  to 
secure  to  labor  its  full  rights,  and  has  paved  a  way  for  a  gen- 
eral perception  of  the  truth  that  the  interests  of  capital  and 
labor  are  identical.  It  is  not  only  organized  labor  which  won 
from  capital  its  just  dues,  but  an  enlightened  public  opinion 
would  no  longer  tolerate  starvation  wages.  More  than  any 
other  industrial  center,  Chicago  proved  the  falsity  of  the  law 
— "das  eherne  Lohngesetz"  (iron  wage  law) — that  the 
raising  of  wages  necessarily  raises  the  price  of  the  manu- 
factured product.  Wages  were  increased  in  Chicago  and 
it  was  found  that  the  standard  of  labor  had  been  corre- 
spondingly raised,  and  that  consequently  the  productive  capac- 
ity of  the  laborer  was  increased.  The  manufacturers  also 
learned  that  by  raising  wages  and  so  increasing  the  purchasing 
power  of  the  laboring  classes,  they  likewise  increased  demand, 
and,  therefore,  stimulated  production  and  cheapened  its  meth- 
ods. Nor  have  the  relatively  high  wages  which  Chicago's 
working  people  receive,  even  in  such  industrial  branches  as 

247 


come  in  competition  with  the  products  of  other  manufacturing 
towns,  weakened  in  the  least  the  city's  competitive  ability. 
On  the  other  hand,  these  high  wages  have  proved  the  basis  for 
the  city's  general  welfare,  a  welfare  in  which  the  immigrants — 
the  Germans,  Irish,  Poles,  Bohemians,  Scandinavians  and  Ital- 
ians— have  not  been  slow  to  participate.  More  than  three- 
fourths  of  the  present  population  of  Chicago  are  of  European 
birth  or  are  the  children  of  immigrants.  They  have  all  fallen 
into  the  American  habit  of  expecting  material  prosperity  and 
have  learned  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  the  American  trick  of 
realizing  their  expectations.  They  not  only  expect  meat  three 
times  a  day  and  some  leisure,  but  they  also  have  these  things. 
Chicago's  laboring  classes  are  at  the  head  of  legitimate,  healthy 
labor  movements  in  the  United  States.  The  reason  for  this 
is  first,  the  powerful  impulse  given  to  local  industries;  and 
second,  that  Chicago's  foreign  (especially  the  German)  work- 
ingmen  and  their  friends,  aided  by  a  powerful  press,  have 
taken  the  lead  in  the  intellectual  development  of  the  laboring 
classes.  Legitimate  labor  movement,  which  on  the  whole  is 
but  an  attempt  to  attain  a  rational  and  natural  end  in  harmony 
with  the  development  of  modern  machinery  and  methods  of 
manufacture,  should  be  sharply  distinguished  from  its  morbid 
outgrowth — the  anarchistic  and  communistic  madness.  The 
first  and  the  real  purpose  of  the  labor  movement  is  to  secure 
shorter  hours  of  labor.  The  demand  for  the  adoption  of  the 
eight-hour  day  comprises  most  of  the  other  demands  of  the 
wage  workers  in  regard  to  the  adaption  of  the  old  economic 
life  to  the  newly  created  conditions— so  much  so  that  it  can  be 
permanently  obtained  only  by  a  general  international  organi- 
zation of  wage  workers.  The  agitation  for  shortening  the 
hours  of  labor  dates  as  far  back  as  the  beginning  of  this  cen- 
tury. Then,  as  now,  the  leaders  in  the  movement  were  the 
workingmen  engaged  in  the  building  trades.  The  ship-build- 
ers of  New  York  established  a  union  in  1803,  and  in  1806  the 
carpenters  followed  suit.  At  that  time  the  master  builders 

248 


were  in  the  employ  of  the  merchants,  who  regarded  these 
organizations  and  their  demand  that  ten  and  not  fourteen  hours 
should  constitute  a  working  day,  with  anything  but  a  friendly 
spirit  and  relentlessly  persecuted  all  members  of  unions.  The 
movement,  however,  gained  strength,  and  in  1832-3  the  car- 
penters and  plasterers  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia  were 
successful  in  their  attempt  to  secure  the  ten-hour  day.  How 
strong  and  popular  this  idea  was,  even  then,  is  proved  by  the 
fact  that  in  1840  President  Van  Buren  proclaimed  the  ten- 
hour  day  for  all  workingmen  in  the  government  navy  yards. 
In  June,  1845,  workingmen  held  great  mass  meetings  in  Pitts- 
burg  and  Alleghany  City,  which  were  followed  by  a  very 
general  strike,  which,  however,  did  not  result  in  favor  of  the 
strikers.  The  first  national  convention  of  workingmen  took 
place  in  New  York,  October  12,  1845.  At  this  convention  the 
formation  of  a  secret  brotherhood  was  proposed.  In  the 
winter  of  1845-6  the  general  demand  for  a  ten-hour  day  was 
proved  by  the  numerous  mass  meetings  held  in  New  England, 
New  York  and  Philadelphia  and  by  the  many  strikes 
which  took  place.  The  establishment  of  a  ten-hour  day  in 
England  by  an  act  of  Parliament  in  1847,  greatly  strengthened 
the  movement  in  this  country.  In  1848  petitions  fairly  poured 
in  on  Congress  in  favor  of  a  general  ten-hour  day  and  of  a  law 
forbidding  the  working  of  children  more  than  eight  hours  a 
day  and  requiring  employers  to  provide  such  children  with  a 
certain  amount  of  schooling. 

In  June,  1850,  the  National  Congress  of  workingmen  met 
in  Chicago.  Many  new  trades  assemblies  were  organized  and 
it  was  decided  to  enforce  the  ten-hour  day  in  all  large  cities 
by  means  of  strikes.  In  1853  in  many  cities  of  the  country 
an  eleven-hour  day  was  introduced.  In  spite  of  this,  however, 
the  majority  of  the  manufacturing  towns  continued  the  four- 
teen-hour  day  in  force  as  late  as  1865.  After  that  year  the 
eleven-hour  day  was  generally  adopted  as  a  result  of  repeated 
and  bitter  strikes.  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island  and  other 

249 


eastern  states  passed  laws  enforcing  the  ten-hour  day,  and  in 
1868,  Congress  passed  a  law  fixing  ten  hours  as  the  working 
day  for  all  laborers  in  the  employ  of  the  government.  Two 
years  before,  in  August,  1866,  a  labor  congress  in  Baltimore 
resolved  to  organize  the  workingmen  independently  of  polit- 
ical parties  and  to  create  a  national  labor  party  for  the  pur- 
pose of  bringing  about  the  eight-hour  day.  The  next  year 
saw  many  strikes,  but  none  of  them  resulted  favorably  to  the 
workingmen.  In  1869,  the  Boston  Eight-hour  League  was 
established,  and  in  the  winter  of  the  same  year  the  order  of  the 
Knights  of  Labor  was  founded  in  Philadelphia. 

The  participation  of  the  German  Social  Democrats  in  the 
American  labor  movement  began  in  the  years  1870  and  1871, 
when  the  International  Labor  Association  in  Europe  resolved 
to  establish  a  branch  association  in  the  United  States.  From 
that  time  the  influence  of  the  German  workingmen  in  this 
movement  has  steadily  gained  strength.  In  the  summer  of 
1872,  about  100,000  men  in  New  York  organized  a  strike,  and 
the  following  trades  won  the  eight-hour  day :  The  brick-layers 
and  their  assistants,  the  stone-cutters,  carpenters,  plasterers, 
plumbers,  paper-hangers,  painters  and  wood  carvers. 

During  the  winter  of  1873-74,  which  was  unusually  severe 
and  caused  much  misery  among  the  poorer  classes  through- 
out the  country,  great  labor  demonstrations  took  place  in  New 
York,  and  finally  terminated  in  bloody  conflicts  with  the  police. 
From  1873  to  1878  there  were  repeated  large  strikes  in  New 
England,  Pennsylvania,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Missouri,  Maryland, 
Ohio  and  New  York. 

Of  the  actual  existence  of  the  "  social  question,"  of 
strong,  unreconciled  differences  between  capital  and  labor,  the 
people  of  the  United  States  were  forcibly  reminded  by  the 
great  Pittsburg  riot  of  1877.  In  July  of  that  year  the  organ- 
ized laborers  throughout  the  country  believed  the  time  had 
come  for  the  introduction  of  the  eight-hour  day,  and  they 
wanted  no  decrease,  but  rather  an  increase  in  wages.  They 

250 


wished  to  begin  operations  with  the  railway  companies.  In 
several  eastern  cities  strikes  were  organized  which  caused 
considerable  bloodshed,  and  in  Pittsburg  several  hundred  peo- 
ple were  killed.  The  local  militia  having  refused  to  aid  the 
city  authorities  in  the  maintenance  of  order,  several  regiments 
of  militia  from  other  parts  of  the  state  were  ordered  to  the 
seat  of  trouble.  They  were  undoubtedly  badly  commanded. 
Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  they  were  not  strong  enough 
to  cope  with  the  thousands  of  rioters,  they  attacked  them 
indiscreetly  and  were  repulsed.  Finally  the  strikers  drove 
the  militia  to  the  round-houses  and  car  shops  of  the  railroads, 
and  afterwards  burned  the  railroad  property — cars,  depots  and 
other  buildings. 

From  there  the  fever  spread  to  Chicago.  On  July  23,  a 
great  mass  meeting  of  laboring  men  took  place  on  Market 
square,  and  several  speakers  advised  forcing  a  strike  of  all 
workingmen  of  the  city.  The  next  day  (Tuesday)  troops  of 
laborers  went  through  Chicago  demanding  that  all  their  fel- 
lows should  strike.  Railroad  traffic  was  suddenly  brought 
to  a  complete  standstill.  In  the  evening  another  mass  meeting 
was  to  be  held,  but  the  police  prevented  it.  Mayor  Heath 
issued  a  proclamation  to  the  citizens,  telling  them  to  organize 
for  the  protection  of  property,  and  the  militia  was  called  to  the 
armories.  Gen.  Joseph  T.  Torrence  commanded  the  militia. 
Many  Union  veterans  volunteered  their  services.  Mayor 
Heath  ordered  the  police  to  report  to  Gen.  Torrence  for 
duty.  On  Wednesday  there  were  serious  encounters  between 
the  police  and  the  strikers  near  McCormick's  factory,  on  the 
Van  Buren  street  bridge,  near  the  Burlington  &  Quincy 
round  house,  on  Sixteenth  street  and  at  other  points  in  the  city. 
It  was  evident  that  the  police  could  not  successfully  cope 
with  the  rioters,  and  so  Gen.  Torrence  ordered  out  the  militia. 
It  was  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  water  works  should 
be  protected,  and  also  the  railroads,  when  they  should  again 
be  put  in  operation.  On  Thursday,  July  26,  the  First  regi- 

251 


merit  was  ordered  to  go  into  camp  near  the  Exposition  build- 
ing on  the  lake  shore,  and  the  Second  regiment  was  quartered 
near  the  Rock  Island  depot.  Lackey's  Zouaves,  the  North 
Chicago  Light  Guard  and  one  company  from  the  First  regi- 
ment were  despatched  to  the  corner  of  Milwaukee  and 
Chicago  avenues,  where  the  police  were  in  great  danger.  At 
ii  o'clock  in  the  morning  the  First  regiment  occupied  Twelfth 
street  bridge,  and  the  Second  regiment  were  assembled  at  the 
Twelfth  street  police  station.  In  the  evening  the  troops  held 
the  following  positions:  Four  companies  of  the  Second  regi- 
ment were  at  Halsted  street  viaduct,  three  were  between  the 
viaduct  and  Twelfth  street,  two  companies  of  the  First  regi- 
ment on  Twelfth  street  bridge,  two  on  Jefferson  street  and 
two  near  the  Twelfth  street  Turner  Hall.  The  main  body  of 
the  rioters  had  been  earlier  concentrated  on  the  Halsted 
street  viaduct,  but  were  driven  away  by  a  clever  movement 
on  the  part  of  the  militia  assisted  by  a  company  of  the 
mounted  veteran  volunteers.  During  the  day  two  companies 
of  United  States  regulars  arrived  in  the  city,  coming  directly 
from  an  Indian  war  in  the  northwest.  Although  they  were 
not  accoutred  in  the  highest  military  style,  as  regards  uni- 
forms, every  man  had  a  rifle  on  his  shoulder  and  a  full  cart- 
ridge belt  around  his  waist.  Few  of  them  showed  even  a 
vestige  of  army  blue,  and  there  were  not  a  dozen  "  soldier 
caps "  among  them.  They  had  just  come  from  a  hard  and 
exhaustive  campaign,  but  the  long,  swinging  stride,  soldierly 
bearing,  bronzed,  bearded  faces  proclaimed  them  the  "  regu- 
lars," and  every  man  who  saw  them  felt  impressed  with  the 
knowledge  that  they  represented  the  strength  and  dignity  of 
the  United  States  government.  Their  influence  was  remark- 
able. Strikers  realized  that  these  men  made  war  their  busi- 
ness, and  they  were  not  be  trifled  with.  The  militia  were 
brave,  energetic  and  willing,  but  the  mob  held  them  in  con- 
tempt. The  appearance  of  a  militiaman  too  often  acts  on  a 
rioter  as  a  red  flag  does  on  an  angry  bull,  but  the  appear- 

252 


ance  of  "  regulars "  always  has  a  wonderfully  soothing 
effect  on  law-breakers,  who,  naturally  enough,  are  quick- 
est to  judge  accurately  of  the  forces  opposing  them.  Finally, 
however,  the  display  of  legal  power  subdued  the  strikers. 
The  excitement  lasted  seven  days  and  then  with  the  return  of 
good  order,  everything  seemed  to  be  forgotten. 

This  outgrowth  of  the  Pittsburg  riots  is  interesting  more  as 
local  history  than  for  any  bearing  it  has  on  the  labor  move- 
ment as  such.  It  is  in  the  nature  of  things  that  in  every 
modern  metropolis  there  will  gather  people  who  cannot  con- 
trol themselves  or  be  easily  controlled  by  others.  In  times  of 
public  excitement,  insignificant  saloon  brawls  may  finally  lead 
to  as  serious  conflicts  with  the  police  as  could  have  been  insti- 
gated by  the  incendiary  speech  of  some  hair-brained  dema- 
gogue. In  such  riots  there  is  no  trace  of  system.  But  few 
of  the  workingmen  who  tried  to  bring  about  the  eight-hour 
day  and  dreamed  of  a  social  millennium,  thought  seriously  of 
riot  and  revolution.  The  whole  uprising  fell  flat,  and  the  few 
who  had  fled  the  city,  fearing  plundering  and  bloodshed,  were, 
later,  the  target  of  much  ridicule. 

But  the  general  labor  disturbances  throughout  the  land, 
especially  the  riots  in  Pittsburg,  brought  the  "  social  question" 
prominently  before  the  people.  In  1878,  Congress  appointed 
a  committee  of  seven  to  investigate  the  labor  troubles.  On 
July  4,  1878,  and  again  in  1879,  there  were  large  labor 
demonstrations  in  favor  of  the  eight-hour  day.  The  year 
1880  was  of  especial  interest  as  regards  the  labor  movement, 
owing  to  the  establishment  of  the  "Federation  of  Organized 
Trade  and  Labor  Unions  of  the  United  States  and  Canada." 
This  most  important  association  adopted  the  English  trades 
unions  as  a  model  for  organization,  and  fashioned  its  demands 
after  those  of  the  conservative  German  socialists. 

In  October,  1884,  the  convention  of  the  Federation  met  in 
Chicago  and  fixed  May  i,  1886,  as  the  day  on  which  the  adoption 
of  the  eight-hour  day  should  be  widely  demanded.  As  a  result, 

253 


a  general  strike  ensued  in  Chicago  on  that  date,  and  mem- 
bers of  the  building  trades,  cigar  makers,  plumbers  and  paint- 
ers' unions  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  eight-hour  day,  which 
theretofore,  in  Chicago,  had  been  enjoyed  only  by  the  stone- 
cutters. In  the  states  of  California,  Connecticut,  Illinois,  Penn- 
sylvania and  New  York,  the  eight-hour  day  was  established  by 
law,  and  laws  for  the  regulation  of  woman  and  child  labor 
were  passed.  Such  laws,  however,  are  of  practical  value  only 
where  labor  organizations  are  strong  enough  to  secure  their 
enforcement.  Otherwise  they  are  largely  dead  letter. 

THE   CHICAGO   ANARCHISTS. 

The  eight-hour  movement— and  in  fact  all  legitimate  labor 
movements — received  a  terrible  set-back  in  May,  1886,  by  the 
dynamite  throwing  in  Haymarket  Square  in  Chicago.  The 
attack  was  the  direct  result  of  the  riot  which  had  occurred 
at  the  McCormick  Reaper  works,  Monday,  May  3 ; 
but  was  the  outgrowth  of  a  long  and  violently  radical  agita- 
tion against  law  and  the  established  order  of  society  by  cer- 
tain anarchists  belonging  to  an  organization  called  the  "Inter- 
national." The  leaders  of  this  organization  had  for  over  a 
year  been  preaching  to  the  laboring  classes  the  most  radical 
form  of  anarchy  and  had  done  everything  in  their  power  to 
bring  about  the  general  strike  of  May  i — not  that  they 
wished  to  secure  to  labor  shorter  hours,  but  that  they 
hoped  the  strikers  might  be  induced  to  join  the  ranks  of 
the  anarchists.  The  "  International  "  was  represented  in  Chi- 
cago by  eight  "  groups,"  and  two  papers — the  "  Arbeiter 
Zeitung,"  a  daily  afternoon  paper  published  in  German  and  an 
English  semi-monthly,  called  the  "  Alarm  " — were  its  organs. 
These  two  papers,  their  editors  and  other  prominent 
members  of  the  "  groups  "  advocated,  openly  and  persistently, 
the  use  of  dynamite  to  overthrow  society  and  bring  about 
anarchy.  At  the  time  of  the  trial  of  the  anarchists  this  was 
not  even  denied. 

254 


The  trouble  at  the  McCormick  works  dated  back  as  far  as 
Feb.  1 6,  1886,  at  which  time  the  works  were  suspended  owing 
to  the  demand  of  the  several  thousand  workmen  there  em- 
ployed, that  wages  be  increased  and  that  only  Union  men  be 
given  work.  In  April  the  company  granted  the  first  request 
and  resumed  operation,  refusing,  however,  to  discriminate  be- 
tween union  and  non-union  men.  May  I  was  the  day  set  for 
the  general  strike  for  obtaining  the  eight-hour  day.  On  Mon- 
day, May  3,  several  thousand  strikers  congregated  near 
Cormick's  works  and  after  listening  to  an  inflammatory  speech 
by  August  Spies,  editor  of  the  "Arbeiter  Zeitung,"  proceeded 
to  attack  the  factory  and  the  police  guarding  it.  In  the 
struggle  that  followed,  twenty  or  more  of  the  strikers  were 
wounded  by  the  police,  several  probably  fatally.  As  soon  as 
he  had  the  mischief  well  started  Spies  took  a  street  car 
and  hied  him  directly  to  the  newspaper  office  where  he  wrote 
his  celebrated  "Revenge  circular,"  later  translated  for  use  at 
the  anarchist  trial  as  follows: 

"Revenge!  Revenge!  Workmen,  to  arms !  Men  of  labor,  this  afternoon  the  bloodhounds 
of  your  oppressors  murdered  six  of  your  brothers  at  McCormick's!  Why  did  they  mur- 
der them?  Because  they  dared  to  be  dissatisfied  with  the  lot  which  your  oppressors  have 
assigned  to  them.  They  demanded  bread,  and  they  gave  them  lead  for  an  answer,  mind- 
ful of  the  fact  that  thus  people  are  most  effectually  silenced.  You  have  for  many,  many 
years  endured  every  humiliation  without  protest;  have  drudged  from  early  in  the  morn- 
ing till  late  at  night;  h,ave  suffered  all  sorts  of  privations,  have  even  sacrificed  your  chil- 
dren. You  have  done  everything  to  fill  the  coffers  of  your  masters — everything  for  them; 
and  now  when  you  approach  them  and  implore  them  to  make  your  burden  a  little  lighter, 
as  a  reward  for  your  sacrifices,  they  send  their  bloodhounds,  the  police,  at  you,  in  order 
to  cure  you  with  bullets  of  your  dissatisfaction.  Slaves,  we  ask  and  conjure  you,  by  all 
that  is  sacred  and  dear  to  you,  avenge  the  atrocious  murder  which  has  been  committed 
upon  your  brothers  to-day,  and  which  will  likely  be  committed  upon  you  to-morrow. 
Laboring  men,  Hercules,  you  have  arrived  at  the  crossway.  Which  way  will  you  decide  ? 
For  slavery  and  hunger,  or  for  freedom  and  bread?  If  you  decide  upon  the  latter,  then 
do  not  delay  a  momont;  then,  people,  to  arms !  Annihilation  to  the  beasts  in  human  form 
who  call  themselves  rulers;  uncompromising  annihilation  to  them!  This  must  be  your 
motto.  Think  of  the  heroes  whose  blood  has  fertilized  the  road  to  progress,  liberty  and 
humanity,  and  strive  to  become  worthy  of  them.  YOUR  BROTHERS." 

May  4,  Adolph  Fischer,  a  prominent  anarchist,  had  dis- 
tributed circulars  in  German  and  English,  reading  as  follows : 

"Attention  Workingmen!  Great  .mass  meeting  to-night  at  7:30  o'clock,  at  the  Hay- 
market,  Randolph  St.,  bet.-Desplaines  and  Halsted.  Good  speakers  will  be  present  to 
denounce  the  latest  atrocious  act  of  the  police,  the  shooting  of  our  fellow-workmen 
yesterday  afternoon.  Workingmen,  arm  yourselves  and  appear  in  full  force ! 

THE  EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE." 

255 


In  response  to  the  circular  several  hundred  men  and  boys 
gathered  in  the  Haymarket  and  listened  to  Albert  R.  Parsons, 
August  Spies  and  Samuel  Fielden — all  well  known  anarchists 
and  labor  agitators.  In  an  alley  opening  on  the  square  stood  a 
truck,  from  which  the  speakers  addressed  the  meeting.  After 
harangues  by  Parsons  and  Spies,  Fielden  addressed  the 
assembly.  Following  is  a  short-hand  report  of  a  part  of  his 
speech : 

"There  are  premonitions  of  danger.  All  knew.  The  press  say  the  anarchists  will 
sneak  away ;  we  are  not  going  to.  If  we  continue  to  be  robbed,  it  will  not  be  long  before 
we  will  be  murdered.  There  is  no  security  for  the  working-classes  under  the  present 
social  system.  A  few  individuals  control  the  means  of  living,  and  hold  the  workmen 
in  a  vice.  Everybody  does  not  know.  Those  who  know  it  are  tired  of  it,  and  know  the 
others  will  get  tired  of  it,  too.  They  are  determined  to  end  it,  and  will  end  it,  and  there  is 
no  power  in  the  land  that  will  prevent  them.  Congressman  Foran  said :  '  The  laborer  can 
get  nothing  from  legislation.'  He  also  said  that  the  laborers  can  get  some  relief  from 
their  present  condition  when  the  rich  man  knew  it  was  unsafe  for  him  to  live  in  a  community 
where  there  were  dissatisfied  wo rkingmen,  for  they  would  solve  the  labor  problem.  I 
don't  know  whether  you  are  Democrats  or  Republicans,  but  whichever  you  are,  you  wor- 
ship at  the  shrine  of  rebels.  John  Brown,  Jefferson,  Washington,  Patrick  Henry,  and 
Hopkins  said  to  the  people :  '  The  law  is  your  enemy.  We  are  rebels  against  it.'  The 
law  is  only  framed  for  those  that  are  your  enslavers.  [A  voice:  '  That  is  true.']  Men  in 
their  blind  rage  attacked  McCormick's  factory,  and  were  shot  down  by.  the  law  in  cold 
blood  in  the  city  of  Chicago,  in  the  protection  of  property.  These  men  were  going  to  do 
some  damage  to  a  certain  person's  interest,  who  was  a  large  property-owner;  therefore 
the  law  came  to  his  defense.  And  when  McCormick undertook  to  do  some  injury  to  the 
interest  of  those  who  had  no  property,  the  law  also  came  to  his  defense,  and  not  to  the 
workingman's  defense,  when  he,  Mr.  McCormick,  attacked  him  and  his  living.  [Cries  of 
'No.']  There  is  the  difference.  The  law  makes  no  distinction.  A  million  men  own  all 
the  property  in  this  country.  The  law  has  no  use  for  the  other  fifty-four  million.  [A  voice, 
'  Right  enough.']  You  have  nothing  more  to  do  with  the  law  except  to  lay  hands  on  it, 
and  throttle  it  until  it  makes  its  last  kick.  It  turns  your  brothers  out  on  the  wayside,  and 
has  degraded  them  untii  they  have  lost  the  last  vestige  of  humanity,  and  they  are  mere 
things  and  animals.  Keep  your  eye  upon  it.  Throttle  it.  Kill  it.  Stab  it.  Do  every- 
thing you  can  to  wound  it,  to  impede  its  progress.  Remember,  before  trusting  them  to 
do  anything  for  yourself,  prepare  to  do  it  for  yourself.  Don't  turn  over  your  business  to 
anybody  else.  No  man  deserves  anything  unless  he  is  man  enough  to  make  an  effort  to 
lift  himself  from  oppression.  Is  it  not  a  fact  that  we  have  no  choice  as  to  our  existence, 
for  we  can't  dictate  what  our  labor  is  worth  ?  He  that  has  to  obey  the  will  of  any  is  a  slave. 
Can  we  do  anything  except  by  the  strong  arm  of  resistance  ?  Socialists  are  not  going  to 
declare  war ;  but  I  tell  you,  war  has  been  declared  upon  us,  and  I  ask  you  to  get  hold  of 
anything  that  will  help  to  resist  the  onslaught  of  the  enemy  and  the  usurper.  The  skir- 
mish-lines have  met.  People  have  been  shot.  Men,  women  and  children  have  not  been 
spared  by  the  capitalists  and  minions  of  private  capital.  It  had  no  mercy,  so  ought  you. 
You  are  called  upon  to  defend  yourselves,  your  lives,  your  future.  What  matters  it 
whether  you  kill  yourselves  with  work  to  get  a  little  relief,  or  die  on  the  battle-field  resist  • 
ing  the  enemy  ?  What  is  the  difference  ?  Any  animal,  however  loathsome,  will  resist 
when  stepped  upon.  Are  men  less  than  snails  and  worms  ?  I  have  some  resistance  in 
me ;  I  know  that  you  have,  too.  You  have  been  robbed,  and  you  will  be  starved  into  a 
worse  condition." 


256 


Just  at  this  stage  180  policemen,  led  by  Inspector  John 
Bonfield  and  Captain  William  Ward,  appeared.  The  inspector 
had  been  advised  of  the  nature  of  the  speeches  by  detect- 
ives who  had  been  at  the  meeting,  and  resolved  that  it  would 
be  for  the  interest  of  the  city"  to  disperse  the  gathering — and 
under  the  law  of  Illinois  it  was  his  duty  to  do  so.  *  It 
was  late  at  night  and  men  were  being  incited  to  deeds  of  vio- 
lence by  speakers  who  had  long  preached  the  most  radical 
kind  of  anarchy. 

When  within  a  few  feet  of  the  speaker  Capt.  Ward  said: 
"  I  command  you,  in  the  name  of  the  people  of  the  state  of  Illi- 
nois, to  immediately  and  peaceably  disperse,"  to  which  Fielden 
replied,  "We  are  peaceable,"  but  a  second  later  a  bomb, 
thrown  from  behind,  whizzed  through  the  air  and  fell  with  a 
terrible  explosion  in  the  midst  of  the  police.  Sixty-seven 
officers  were  wounded — seven  of  them  fatally,  but  they  closed 
their  ranks  immediately,  and  drawing  their  revolvers,  pro- 
ceeded to  clear  the  streets.  But  little  resistance  was  offered 
them  and  order  was  at  once  restored.  The  first  officer  to  die 
of  his  injuries  was  Mathias  J.  Degan,  and  it  was  for  his  mur- 
der that  the  anarchists  were  later  punished.  Arrests  began  at 
once — the  police  throwing  out  their  drag-nets  for  all  suspected 
of  being  leaders  in  the  supposed  anarchistic  conspiracy,  or  of 
being  tools  of  these  conspirators.  Of  the  large  number 
arrested  many  were  immediately  discharged.  Some  were 
held  as  witnesses,  and  the  following  men  were  indicted 
for  murder:  August  Spies,  Samuel  Fielden,  Louis  Lingg, 
George  Engel,  Adolph  Fischer,  Michael  Schwab  and  Oscar 
Neebe.  Albert  R.  Parsons  fled  the  city,  but  at  the  beginning 
of  the  trial  voluntarily  appeared  In  court  and  gave  himself 
up  in  a  very  theatrical  manner — an  event  which  confirmed 
many  people  in  the  belief  that  the  defendants  could  not  be 

'Section  253,  Chapter  38,  Revised  Statutes,  provides  that  "when  twelve  or  more 
persons,  any  of  them  armed  with  clubs  or  dangerous  weapons,  or  thirty  or  more,  armed 
or  unarmed,  are  unlawfully,  riotously,  or  tumultously  assembled  in  any  city  ...  it  shall 
be  the  duty  of  each  of  the  municipal  officers  ....  to  go  among  the  persons  so  assembled 
....  and  in  the  name  of  the  state  command  them  immediately  to  disperse." 

17 

257 


legally  connected  with  the  bomb-throwing,  and  so  punished 
for  murder. 

Police  investigation  soon  discovered  in  the  haunts  of  the 
defendants,  many  bombs  and  quantities  of  bomb  material,  and 
it  was  a  matter  of  general  knowledge  that  the  accused  had 
openly  and  publicly  advocated  the  use  of  dynamite  and  the 
wholesale  slaughter  of  the  rich  and  the  introduction  of  anar- 
chy. The  files  of  the  "Alarm"  and  "Arbeiter"  gave  ample 
evidence  of  the  teachings  of  the  accused,  but  it  was  impossible 
to  prove  that  any  of  the  defendants  had  any  direct  connection 
with  the  bomb-thrower.  It  was  generally  believed  that 
Schwab's  brother-in-law,  Rudolph  Schnaubelt,  really  hurled 
the  bomb,  and  although  he  was  at  one  time  in  the  hands  of  the 
police,  he  was  later  released,  by  accident,  and  disappeared. 

His  connection  with  the  case  was  not  proved,  however,  and 
in  the  absence  of  the  identification  of  the  bomb-thrower,  many 
believed  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  convict  the  accused. 
Others  maintained  that  there  was  ample  evidence  to  prove 
that  the  bomb-throwing  was  the  result  of  a  conspiracy. 
In  June  the  trial  began,  and  21  days  were  consumed  before 
the  twelve  jurors  were  selected  from  the  981  men  who  had 
been  summoned  for  the  purpose.  The  trial  proper  began 
July  14,  and  August  20  the  jury  rendered  a  verdict,  finding  all 
the  defendants  but  Neebe  guilty  of  murder  and  fixing  the 
penalty  at  death.  Neebe  was  found  guilty  of  murder,  but  the 
penalty  attached  was  but  15  years  in  the  penitentiary,  as  the 
States  Attorney  had  said  that  he  did  not  think  this  defendant 
should  be  punished  with  death. 

The  fate  of  the  seven  was  sealed  from  the  time  that  the 
presiding  judge,  Joseph  E.  Gary,  gave  the  decision  that  to 
prove  that  the  defendants  were  guilty  of  murder,  it  was  not 
necessary  to  prove  that  any  of  them  threw  the  bomb  or  sug- 
gested positively  that  that  particular  bomb  be  thrown  at  that 
particular  time.  Having  repeatedly  advocated  the  use  of 
dynamite  to  overthrow  society  and  to  kill  the  rich,  the  anarch- 

258 


ists,  so  soon  as  their  advice  was  followed,  became  murderers — 
co-conspirators  in  a  plot  and  morally  responsible  for  the  deed. 
The  defense  made  the  objection  that  the  accused  had  given 
only  general  advice  as  to  the  overthrow  of  law  and  that  they 
could  not  therefore  be  charged  with  the  responsibility  for  a  spe- 
cific crime  which  they  did  not  personally  execute.  The  point 
came  up  when  the  prosecution  attempted  to  show  that  the 
defendants  had  had  bombs  in  their  possession  at  various  times. 
The  defense  objected  to  the  testimony  unless  it  was  to  go  to 
prove  that  the  accused  furnished  the  particular  bomb  that  caused 
the  death  of  Degan.  In  deciding  the  point, Judge  Gary  said: 

"  If  it  is  agreed  to  use  violence  for  the  destruction  of  human  lives  upon  an  occasion  which 
is  not  yet  foreseen,  but  upon  some  general  principle  on  which  the  conspirators  substan- 
tially agree;  for  example,  if  a  large  number  of  men  agreed  to  kill  the  police  if  they  were 
found  in  conflict  with  the  strikers,  leaving  the  date  to  the  agencies  of  time  to  determine; 
whenever  the  time  and  occasion  do  come  for  the  use  of  that  violence,  and  when  that 
violence  is  used,  are  not  the  parties  who  have  agreed  beforehand  to  use  the  means  of 
destruction  equally  guilty?  Suppose  that  there  was  a  general  agreement  that  weapons 
of  death  should  be  used  if  the  police  got  into  conflict  with  the  strikers;  that  is,  if  the  police 
undertook  to  enforce  the  laws  of  the  state  and  prevent  a  breach  of  the  peace  and  de- 
struction of  property — if  the  police  undertook  to  do  BO,  that  then  they  would  attack  and 
kill  the  police,  but  the  time  and  occasion  of  the  attack  itself  were  not  foreseen;  the  time 
and  occasion  being  to  be  determined  by  the  parties  who  were  to  use  the  force  when  in 
their  judgment  the  time  and  occasion  were  to  come;  and  then,  when  the  police  were 
found  attempting  to  preserve  the  peace,  some  persons  who  have  been  parties  to  this 
agreement  do  kill  them,  are  not  all  of  these  persons  equally  guilty?  If  there  was  a 
general  combination  and  agreement  among  a  great  number  of  individuals  to  kill  police- 
men if  they  came  into  conflict  with  parties  with  whom  they  were  friendly— meetings  of 
workingmen,  and  bodies  of  strikers;  if  it  was  the  combination  and  agreement  to  kill  the 
police  in  their  attempt  to  preserve  the  peace;  if  there  was  such  a  combination  and  agree- 
ment among  a  great  number  of  men,  the  object  of  which  was  something  beyond  mere 
local  disturbance,  whether  it  was  the  object  to  offer  a  new  form  of  civil  society  or 
not,  if  there  was  such  an  agreement  to  kill  the  police  upon  some  occasion  that  might 
occur  in  the  future,  whether  the  proper  time  had  arrived  being  left  to  their  j  udgment,  then 
if  that  violence  was  used  and  resulted  in  the  death  of  the  police,  then  those  who  were  party 
to  the  agreement  are  guilty  of  the  death.  It  is  entirely  competent  for  the  state  to  show 
that  these  several  defendants  have  had  such  missiles  in  their  possession  to  be  used  on 
occasions  that  they  might  anticipate.  There  need  not  be  an  agreement  that  they  should 
be  used  on  this  specific  occasion,  but  on  some  occasion  that  might  arise  in  the  future. 
Any  one  case  where  such  violence  was  used  may  involve  the  showing  of  the  entire  con- 
spiracy from  beginning  to  end." 

This  position  of  the  court,  undoubtedly  correct  under  the 
Illinois  statutes  and  Supreme  Court  decisions*,  was  the  turn- 
ing point  of  the  trial.  The  stand  taken  by  Judge  Gary  was 

*  In  the  case  of  Brennan  vs.  The  People  (15  Illinois  Reports,  511),  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Illinois  held:  "There  is  a  fatal  obj ection  to  the  eighteenth,  twenty-first  and 

259 


made  still  clearer  in  his  remarks  upon  refusing  to  grant  the 
defendants  a  new  trial.  After  reading  from  the  "Arbeiter" 
and  "Alarm,"  copious  extracts  to  prove  that  the  defend- 
ants had  attempted,  in  a  long  series  of  public  articles,  to  incite 
the  working  classes  to  make  unlawful  attacks  on  persons  and 
property,  Judge  Gary  said : 

"The  jury  were  not  inshucted  to  find  the  defendants  guilty  if  they  believed  that  they 
participated  in  the  throwing  of  that  bomb,  or  encouraged  or  advised  the  throwing  of  that 
bomb,  or  had  knowledge  that  it  was  to  be  thrown,  or  anything  of  that  sort.  The  convic- 
tion has  not  gone  upon  the  ground  that  they  did  have  actually  any  personal  participation 
in  the  particular  act  which  caused  the  death  of  Began;  but  the  conviction  proceeds  upon 
the  ground,  under  the  instructions,  that  they  had  generally,  by  speech  and  print,  advised 
large  classes  of  the  people,  not  particular  individuals,  but  large  classes,  to  commit 
murder,  and  have  left  the  commission,  the  time  and  place  and  when,  to  individual  will 
and  whim  or  caprice,  or  whatever  it  may  be,  of  each  individual  man  who  listened 
to  their  advice,  and  that  in  consequence  of  that  advice,  in  pursuance  of  that 
advice,  and  influenced  by  that  advice,  somebody  not  known  did  throw  the 

bomb    that    caused    Degan's    death Perhaps    I    can    make     my   view 

upon  that  subject  clearer  by  an  illustration.  Suppose  that  the  radical  tem- 
perance men  should,  for  a  long  period  of  time,  by  speeches  and  publications, 
declare  that  there  was  no  hope  of  stopping  the  evils  of  the  liquor  traffic  except  by 
blowing  up  saloons  and  killing  saloonkeepers;  that  it  was  useless  to  expect  any  reform 
by  legislation,  that  no  prohibition  laws  nor  high  license  laws  nor  any  other  laws  would 
have  any  effect  in  their  estimation,  and  that  therefore  they  must  blow  up  the  saloons 
and  kill  the  saloonkeepers— and  j  ustif y  that  course;  suppose  that  in  addition  to  that,  they 
taught  means  by  which  saloons  could  be  blown  up  and  saloon-keepers  killed,  and  then 
called  a  meeting  in  West  Lake  street,  in  front  of  No.  54  West  Lake  *,  and  while  some 
speakers  were  denouncing  the  liquor  traffic,  and  saying  to  an  audience,  'If  you  are  ready 
to  do  anything,  do  it  without  making  any  idle  threat,'  and  another  speaker  says, 'Throttle, 
kill,  stab  the  saloon  business,  or  it  will  kill,  throttle  and  stab  you,'  and  then,  while 
that  speaking  is  going  on,  some  unknown  man  out  of  the  crowd,  with  a  bomb  of  the 
manufacture  of  the  temperance  men,  explodes  No.  G4  Lake  street,  and  kills  the  occupants 
of  the  house— I  apprehend  that  none  of  the  parties  who  are  objecting  to  the  insufficiency 
of  this  proof  in  this  case  would  have  any  hesitation  in  saying  that  the  men  who  had 
advised  that  conduct  were  guilty  of  it." 

Had  Judge  Gary  not  given  this  interpretation  to  the  law, 
the  conviction  of  the  defendants  would  have  been  impossible. 

twenty-second  instructions  asked  by  the  prisoners.  These  instructions  required  the  jury 
to  acquit  the  prisoners  unless  they  actually  participated  in  the  killing  of  Story,  or  unless 
the  killing  happened  in  pursuance  of  a  common  design  on  the  part  of  the  prisoners 
to  take  his  life.  Such  is  not  the  law.  The  prisoners  may  be  guilty  of  murder,  although 
they  neither  took  part  in  the  killing  nor  assented  to  any  arrangement  having  for  its 
object  the  death  of  Story.  It  is  sufficient  that  they  combined  with  those  committing  the 
deed  to  do  an  unlawful  act,  such  as  to  beat  or  rob  Story,  and  that  he  was  killed  in  the 
attempt  to  execute  the  common  purpose.  If  several  persons  conspire  to  do  an  unlawful 
act,  and  death  happen  in  the  prosecution  of  the  common  object,  all  are  alike  guilty  of 
the  homicide.  The  act  of  one  of  them,  done  in  furtherance  of  the  original  design,  is  in 
consideration  of  law,  the  act  of  all,  and  he  who  advises  or  encourgages  another  to  do  an 
illegal  act  is  responsible  for  all  the  natural  and  probable  consequences  that  may  arise 

from  its  perpetration Nor  need  the  advice  or    encouragement   that   may 

make  one  an  accessory  to  crime  be  by  words,  but  by  any  word  or  act,  sign  or  motion 
done  or  made  for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  the  commission  of  a  crime. 

*Many  of  the  meetings  of  the  anarchists  were  held  in  the  saloon  at  No.  54  West  Lake 
street. 

260 


They  could  not  be  directly  connected  with  the  bomb-thrower, 
but,  according  to  Judge  Gary's  interpretation,  this  was  unnec- 
cessary.  The  prosecution  had  to  prove  only  that  the  defend- 
ants had  systematically  and  for  a  considerable  time,  in  word 
and  by  writing,  advocated  the  very  crime  which  the  bomb- 
thrower  put  in  execution.  This  proof  was  easy  to  establish. 
Indeed,  the  defendants  and  their  counsel  so  strongly  felt  their 
inability  to  contradict  it,  that  they  made  their  strongest  fight  to 
overthrow  Judge  Gary's  interpretation.  Spies,  Parsons  and 
Fielden  had  preached  their  crazy  doctrines  publicly  and  per- 
sistently ;  they  had  never  hesitated  in  their  advocacy  of  open 
rebellion  against  law  and  order  and  the  destruction  of  all  estab- 
lished institutions.  They  repeatedly  declared  that  recourse  to 
violence,  bomb-throwing  and  the  like,  was  the  only  salvation 
of  the  proletariat.  Their  past  and  the  indisputable  fact  that 
they  had  formed  "  armed  groups  "  to  use  dynamite  against  the 
officers  of  the  law,  stamped  the  accused,  according  to  the 
court's  interpretation  of  the  law,  as  the  moral  instigators  of  the 
Haymarket  massacre.  The  jury  could  do  nothing  else  than 
find  them  guilty.  The  assertion  that  the  jury  and  state's  attor- 
ney were  bribed  by  capitalists  is  too  silly  to  merit  attention. 

Notwithstanding  Judge  Gary's  ruling,  the  state's  attorney, 
Julius  S.  Grinnell,  tried  to  make  assurance  doubly  sure  by  prov- 
ing— especially  through  informers,  states'  evidence  men,  who 
tried  thus  to  save  their  own  necks — that  the  accused  had  actu- 
ally belonged  to  an  anarchist  conspiracy  which  had  plotted  to 
make  a  bomb  attack  on  the  evening  of  May  4,  that  300 
bombs  were  to  have  been  thrown,  but  that  later,  the  plan  was 
changed  and  that  the  bomb  actually  thrown  was  hurled  by  a 
conspirator  who  had  not  been  advised  of  the  change.  It  was 
also  alleged  to  be  a  part  of  this  plot,  to  take  advantage  of  the 
terrible  panic  caused  by  the  bomb  explosions  to  rob  the  banks 
and  proclaim  anarchistic  dictatorship  under  the  sceptre  of 
August  Spies.  From  pieces  of  the  bomb  actually  thrown,  it 
was  conclusively  proved,  by  chemical  analysis,  that  the  engine 

261 


of  destruction  was  the  work  of  Louis  Lingg,  one  of  the 
accused,  and  it  was  also  shown  that  Lingg  and  others  were 
busy  all  the  afternoon  of  May  4  with  filling  bombs  which 
were  afterward  distributed  to  various  conspirators.  But  not- 
withstanding this  proof,  the  state's  attorney  would  doubtless 
have  acted  more  wisely  had  he  not  insisted  in  carrying  out  his 
prosecution  on  this  general  line,  for  justifiable  as  was  his  moral 
conviction  that  the  anarchists  had  planned  a  fiendish  and  dia- 
bolical attack  for  the  evening  of  May  4,  the  evidence  he 
furnished  before  the  court  was  not  sufficient  to  dispel  all 
doubts  on  the  subject.  The  existence  of  the  plot  was  not 
definitely  proved,  and  although  this  proof  was  unnecessary  to 
establish  the  guilt  of  the  defendants,  it  gave  a  pretext  for 
criticism  on  the  part  of  anarchistic  sympathizers. 

It  was  probably  another  error  of  the  prosecution  to  allow 
an  utterly  irresponsible  fellow  named  Gilmer  to  take  the 
stand  and  pose  as  an  eye-witness  to  the  alleged  fact  that  Spies 
himself  lighted  the  bomb.  The  character  of  this  witness 
imprinted  on  all  testimony  of  the  state — so  far  as  it  sought  to 
establish  a  direct  connection  between  the  accused  and  the 
bomb-thrower — the  stamp  of  manufactured  evidence.  Nor  was 
there  anything  gained  by  it,  for  the  guilt  and  liability  of  the 
defendants  could  not  have  been  thereby  increased  by  the 
weight  of  a  feather,  for  the  mere  fact  that  they  had  advised 
the  act  was  sufficient,  under  the  statutes  of  Illinois,  to  hold 
them  guilty  as  charged. 

After  the  verdict  the  defendants  asked  for  a  new  trial, 
which  was  denied.  Then  the  opportunity  to  say  why  sen- 
tence should  not  be  pronounced  was  afforded  each  man,  and 
three  days  were  consumed  in  speech-making.  Then  Judge 
Gary  addressed  the  condemned  men  for  the  last  time:  "I  am 
well  aware,"  said  he,  "  that  what  you  have  said,  although 
addressed  to  me,  has  been  said  to  the  world;  yet  nothing  has 
been  said  which  weakens  the  force  of  the  proof,  or  the  con- 
clusions therefrom,  upon  which  the  verdict  is  based.  You 

262 


are  all  men  of  intelligence,  and  know  that,  if  the  verdict 
stands,  it  must  be  executed.  The  reasons  why  it  shall  stand, 
I  have  already  sufficiently  stated  in  deciding  the  motion  for  a 
new  trial.  I  am  sorry,  beyond  any  power  of  expression,  for 
your  unhappy  condition,  and  for  the  terrible  events  that  have 
brought  you  to  it.  I  shall  address  to  you  neither  reproaches 
nor  exhortations.  What  I  shall  say  will  be  said  in  the  faint 
hope  that  a  few  words  from  a  place  where  the  people  of  the 
state  of  Illinois  have  delegated  the  authority  to  declare  the 
penalty  of  a  violation  of  their  laws,  and  spoken  upon  an  occa- 
sion so  solemn  and  awful  as  this,  may  come  to  the  knowledge 
of,  and  be  heeded  by,  the  ignorant,  deluded,  and  misguided 
men  who  have  listened  to  your  counsels  and  followed  your 
advice.  I  say  in  the  faint  hope;  for  if  men  are  persuaded 
that  because  of  business  differences,  whether  about  labor  or 
anything  else,  they  may  destroy  property,  and  assault  and 
beat  other  men,  and  kill  the  police,  if  they,  in  the  discharge  of 
their  duty,  interfere  to  preserve  the  peace,  there  is  little 
ground  to  hope  that  they  will  listen  to  any  warning. 

"  Not  the  least  among  the  hardships  of  the  peaceable,  frugal 
and  laborious  poor,  is  to  endure  the  tyranny  of  mobs,  who 
with  lawless  force  dictate  to  them  under  penalty  of  peril  to 
limb  and  life,  where,  when  and  upon  what  terms  they  may 
earn  a  livelihood  for  themselves  and  their  families.  Any  gov- 
ernment that  is  worthy  of  the  name,  will  strenuously  endeavor 
to  secure  to  all  within  its  jurisdiction,  freedom  to  follow  their 
lawful  avocations  in  safety  for  their  property  and  their  persons 
while  obeying  the  law.  And  the  law  is  common  sense.  It 
holds  each  man  responsible  for  the  natural  and  probable  con- 
sequences of  his  own  act.  It  holds  that  whoever  advises  mur- 
der, is  himself  guilty  of  the  murder  that  is  committed  pursuant 
to  his  advice ;  and  if  men  band  together  for  forcible  resistance 
to  the  execution  of  the  law  and  advise  murder  as  a  means  of 
making  such  resistance  effectual,  whether  such  advice  be  to 
one  man  to  murder  another,  or  to  a  numerous  class  to  murder 

263 


men  of  another  class — all  who  are  so  banded  together  are 
guilty  of  any  murder  that  is  committed  in  pursuance  of  such 
advice. 

"  The  people  of  this  country  love  their  institutions.  They 
love  their  homes.  They  love  their  property.  They  will  never 
consent  that  by  violence  and  murder  those  institutions  shall 
be  broken  down,  their  homes  despoiled,  and  their  property 
detroyed.  And  the  people  are  strong  enough  to  protect  and 
sustain  their  institutions  and  to  punish  all  offenders  against 
their  laws ;  and  those  who  threaten  danger  to  civil  society,  if 
the  law  is  enforced,  are  leading  to  destruction  whoever  may 
attempt  to  execute  such  threats. 

"  The  existing  order  of  society  can  be  changed  only  by  the 
will  of  the  majority.  Each  man  has  the  full  right  to 
entertain,  and  advocate,  by  speech  and  print,  such  opin- 
ions as  suit  himself,  and  the  great  body  of  the  people 
will  usually  care  little  what  he  says;  but  if  he  proposes 
murder  as  a  means  of  enforcing  them,  he  puts  his  own 
life  at  stake;  and  no  clamor  about  free  speech,  or  evils  to 
be  cured,  or  wrongs  to  be  redressed,  will  shield  him  from  the 
consequences  of  his  crime.  His  liberty  is  not  a  license  to  de- 
stroy. The  toleration  that  he  enjoys  he  must  extend  to  others, 
and  not  arrogantly  assume  that  the  great  majority  are  wrong 
and  may  rightly  be  coerced  by  terror  or  removed  by  dynamite. 

"It  only  remains  that  for  the  crime  you  have  committed,  and 
of  which  you  have  been  convicted  after  a  trial  unexampled  in 
the  patience  with  which  an  outraged  people  have  extended  to 
you  every  protection  and  privilege  of  the  law  which  you 
derided  and  defied,  the  sentence  of  that  law  be  now  pro- 
nounced." Then  on  the  pth  of  October,  1886,  Judge  Gary 
pronounced  sentence  upon  the  defendants. 

The  contemptible  remnant  of  the  anarchistic  societies  of 
course  impugned  the  justice  of  the  trial  and  hurled  calumny 
at  those  who  had  assisted  in  the  prosecution  of  the  murderers. 
Despite  the  sensational  stories  about  the  anarchists,  their  pure 

264 


and  lofty  purposes,  etc.,  they  were,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  a  very 
cheap  crew.  Spies,  who  is  generally  regarded  as  the  leader, 
was  phenomenally  vain,  and  was  far  more  inspired  by  news- 
paper notoriety  than  by  capitalistic  outrages.  His  salary  as 
editor  of  the  "  Arbeiter "  was  a  mere  pittance,  and  yet  he 
lived  like  a  prince.  He  was  famous  for  his  connection  with 
numerous  labor  picnics,  which  were  invariably  characterized 
by  so  fine  an  adjustment  of  expenditures  to  receipts  that  there 
was  never  a  surplus.  All  the  anarchists  regarded  Johann 
Most  as  a  leader,  and  justice  must  certainly  hold  him  respons- 
ible for  the  Haymarket  outrage.  He  had  been  driven  out  of 
Austria,  Russia  and  England,  only  to  come  to  the  United 
States  to  spread  broadcast  his  infamous  doctrines  and  establish 
his  anarchistic  "  groups."  The  organization  of  the  "  groups," 
to  which  Spies,  Parsons,  Lingg,  Fielden,  Engel  and  the  others 
belonged,  is  traceable  directly  to  Most.  It  dates  from  his  visit 
to  Chicago  in  1884,  when,  after  winning  Spies  to  his  cause, 
he  completely  changed  the  policy  of  the  "  Arbeiter  Zeitung," 
which  theretofore  had  been  only  socialistic  in  tendency.  After 
Most's  visit,  however,  it  became  a  pronounced  anarchistic  organ, 
and  its  pernicious  activity  was  largely  responsible  for  the  sub- 
sequent catastrophe.  Most's  writings  were  the  gospel  of  his 
Chicago  followers,  whom  he  taught  to  believe  that  they  could 
control  the  whole  labor  movement.  Most's  damnable 
"  Handbook  on  Anarchistic  Warfare,"  with  its  minute  receipts, 
was  the  direct  cause  of  the  manufacture,  in  Chicago,  of  dyna- 
mite bombs.  This  unique  work  contains  not  only  exact 
formulas  for  the  manufacture  of  dynamite  and  other  explosives, 
but  also  directions  "  for  easily  setting  policemen  on  fire  from 
behind,  chemically  and  without  danger  of  discovery,"  for 
making  and  using  fire-bombs,  for  poisoning  "  capitalistic 
beasts,"  and  for  other  enterprising  methods  of  anarchistic 
activity.  During  the  trial  this  book  was  introduced  as  evi- 
dence, but  its  author,  though  morally  responsible  for  the 
bomb-throwing,  remained  unmolested  in  New  York.  Many 

265 


prominent  lawyers  were  of  the  opinion  that  Most  should  have 
been  indicted  and  that  he  could  have  been  convicted 
with  the  others,  but  Chicago's  states  attorney  thought 
otherwise.  Justice  sometimes  has  strange  fancies!  The 
anarchists  were  condemned  to  death  for  being  morally 
responsible  for  the  murder  of  Degan,  but  their  teacher,  the 
actual  head  of  all  anarchists  in  the  United  States,  was  not 
even  -indicted — simply  because  he  happened  to  be  in  New 
York.  It  would  seem  that  fate  wished  to  spare  the  doomed 
men  the  further  infamy  of  being  in  death  the  companions  of 
him  whose  tools  and  dupes  they  had  been  in  life. 

A  romantic  incident  of  the  trial  was  the  proxy  marriage  of 
August  Spies  to  a  girl  named  Nina  Van  Zandt.  The  girl  regu- 
larly attended  the  trial,  and  became  attached  to  Spies,  who  was 
a  rather  good-looking  young  fellow.  She  was,  of  course,  unable 
to  marry  Spies  himself,  but  finally  united  to  him  by  proxy,  his 
brother  standing  in  his  place,  for  August  could  not  be  reached 
even  by  the  hand  of  love.  At  the  time  it  was  generally  sup- 
posed that  the  girl  had  merely  a  morbid  craving  for  notoriety, 
but  she  afterward  stated — shortly  before  a  subsequent  mar- 
riage— that  one  of  the  principal  attorneys  for  the  defense  had 
made  use  of  her  passing  sentimental  emotion  to  mislead  her 
into  such  sensational  deportment  as  he  hoped  would  arouse 
for  his  client  the  interest  and  sympathy  of  influential  and  senti- 
mental women  of  Chicago  and  of  the  men  controlled  by  them. 

The  supreme  court  of  the  state  affirmed  the  judgment  of 
the  criminal  court,  and  the  day  of  execution  first  set  having 
passed,  fixed  November  n,  1887,  as  the  day  for  the  execution 
of  the  sentence.  The  friends  of  the  doomed  men  left  no  stone 
unturned  to  secure  their  pardon  from  Gov.  Oglesby,  and  for 
one  reason  or  another  received  support  and  assistance  from 
even  those  who  believed  the  sentence  just.  The  firmness 
displayed  by  Gov.  Oglesby  was  admirable.  He  was  deeply 
affected  by  the  entreaties  of  the  relatives  of  the  anarchists, 
but  in  his  decision  was  guided  not  by  feelings  of  personal  pity, 

266 


but  by  regard  for  the  general  welfare  of  the  community  He 
commuted  the  death  sentence  of  Fielden  and  Schwab  to 
imprisonment  for  life,  after  receiving  from  these  two  men  a 
petition  for  mercy,  in  which  they  expressed  their  profound 
regret  for  the  catastrophe.  Parsons,  Spies,  Engel  and  Fischer 
atoned  their  crime  on  the  gallows;  Lingg.  the  day  before  the 
execution,  killed  himself  by  taking  a  dynamite  cartridge  in  his 
teeth  and  exploding  it.  The  execution  of  the  sentence  was 
without  interference  or  demonstration,  although  the  appre- 
hension that  something  tragic  might  happen  was  not  wholly 
causeless.  In  spite  of  the  vigilance  of  the  jail  authorities, 
Lingg  succeeded  in  smuggling  into  his  cell  quite  a  number  of 
dynamite  cartridges  and  bombs,  but  all  were  discovered  before 
the  day  of  execution.  Lingg's  personal  courage  was  remark- 
able, and  had  opportunity  afforded  itself  he  would  undoubtedly 
have  blown  up  the  jail,  and  if  necessary  all  within  it. 

For  so  celebrated  a  case  there  has  been  a  vast  deal  of 
popular  misunderstanding  in  regard  to  the  anarchist  trial.  In 
an  article  published  in  the  "  Century  Magazine,"  for  April, 
1893,  Judge  Gary  alludes  to  this  fact,  and  adds:  "The 
anarchists  were  not  tried  for  being  anarchists,  but  for  procur- 
ing murder  to  be  done,  and  being,  therefore,  themselves 
guilty  of  murder."  The  distinguished  jurist  feels  called  upon 
even  to  explain  his  motives  in  publicly  discussing  the  case, 
and  states  that  the  principal  one  was  "  to  demonstrate  to  my 
own  profession,  and  to  make  plain  to  all  fair-minded,  intelligent 
people,  that  the  verdict  of  the  jury  in  the  case  of  the  anarch- 
ists was  right;  that  the  anarchists  were  guilty  of  murder; 
that  they  were  not  the  victims  of  prejudice,  nor  martyrs  for 
free  speech,  but  in  morals;  as  well  as  in  law,  were  guilty  of 
murder,"  and  further,  "to  show  to  the  laboring  people,  of 
whom  the  anarchists  claimed  to  be  the  especial  friends,  that 
that  claim  was  a  sham  and  pretense,  adopted  only  as  a  means 
to  bring  manual  laborers  into  their  own  ranks;  and  that  the 
counsel  and  advice  of  the  anarchists,  if  followed  by  the  work- 

267 


ingmen,  would  expose  them  to  the  danger  of  becoming,  in 
law,  murderers,"  and,  finally,  to  "  show  that  the  real  passions 
at  the  bottom  of  the  hearts  of  the  anarchists  were  envy  and 
hatred  of  all  people  whose  condition  in  life  was  better  than 
their  own,  who  were  more  prosperous  than  themselves." 

As  to  the  guilt  of  the  accused,  Judge  Gary,  in  the  same 
article,  says  that  "  the  publications  in  the  '  Arbeiter '  and 
'  Alarm,'  and  the  speeches  of  Spies,  Parsons,  Schwab,  Fielden 
and  Engel  (whose  speeches  were  proved  at  great  length  on 
the  trial,  all  of  them  advising  their  hearers  to  arm  themselves, 
among  other  things,  with  dynamite)  were  acts  in  furtherance 
of  the  design  and  purpose  of  the  conspiracy,  by  conspira- 
tors, and  therefore,  upon  legal  principles,  acts  of  the  whole 
body  and  each  individual  of  the  co-conspirators;  that  the 
general  advice  given  to  all  readers  and  hearers  was  advice  to 
each  and  every  individual  of  those  readers  and  hearers;  that 
advice  to  pursue  a  course  of  conduct  embracing  or  including 
a  particular  act  is  a'dvice  to  do  that  act ;  that  it  is  inconceivable 
that  the  man  who  threw  a  bomb  made  by  Lingg,  one  of  the 
conspirators,  was  not  by  some  of  those  publications  or  speeches 
encouraged  so  to  do,  and  therefore  the  whole  body  of  the 
conspirators  were  accessories  to  the  act  of  throwing  it,  and 
responsible  for  it,  whether  it  was  thrown  by  one  who  was 
himself  a  member  of  the  conspiracy,  or  who  was  some  hair- 
brained  fool,  or  some  criminal  who  wished  to  avenge  himself 
for  some  grievance,  real  or  fancied,  that  he  had  suffered  at  the 
hands  of  the  police.'r 

In  speaking  over  the  graves  of  the  anarchists,  two  days 
after  the  execution,  William  P.  Black,  of  the  counsel  for  de- 
fence, said: 

"I  loved  these  men.  I  knew  them  not  until  I  came  to  know  them  in  the  time  of  their 
sore  travail  and  anguish.  As  months  went  by  and  I  found  in  the  lives  of  those  with  whom 
I  talked  the  witness  of  their  love  for  the  people,  of  their  patience,  gentleness  and  cour- 
age, my  heart  was  taken  captive  in  their  cause I  say  that  whatever  of  fault 

may  have  been  in  them,  these,  the  people  whom  they  loved  and  in  whose  cause  they  died, 
may  well  close  the  volume,  and  seal  up  the  record,  and  give  our  lips  to  the  praise  of 
their  heroic  deeds,  and  their  sublime  self-sacrifice." 

268 


Referring  to  this  speech  in  the  magazine  article  already 
quoted,  Judge  Gary  writes  as  follows : 

"If  these  words  have  any  meaning,  they  refer  to  the  acts  of  the  anarchists  which  I 
have,  in  part,  told;  '  the  people  whom  they  loved '  they  deceived,  deluded,  and  endea- 
vored to  convert  into  murderers;  the  '  cause  they  died  in '  was  rebellion,  to  prosecute 
which  they  taught  and  instigated  murder;  their  'heroic  deeds  '  were  causeless,  wanton 
murders  done;  and  the  '  sublime  self-sacrifice  '  of  the  only  one  to  whom  the  words  can 
apply  was  suicide,  to  escape  the  impending  penalty  of  the  law  incurred  by  murder.  For 
nearly  seven  years  the  clamor,  uncontradicted,  has  gone  round  the  world  that  the  anar- 
chists were  heroes  and  martyrs,  victims  of  prejudice  and  fear Right- 
minded,  thoughtful  people,  who  recognize  the  necessity  to  civilization  of  the  existence 
and  enforcement  of  laws  for  the  protection  of  human  life,  and  who  yet  may  have  had 
misgivings  as  to  the  fate  of  the  anarchists,  will,  I  trust,  read  what  I  have  written,  and  dis- 
miss those  misgivings,  convinced  that  in  law  and  in  morals  the  anarchists  were  rightly 
punished,  not  for  opinions,  but  for  horrible  deeds." 

The  last  development  in  the  case  occurred  in  April,  1892, 
when  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  gave  its  decision  in 
the  appeal  which  had  been  made  to  it  by  the  attorneys  for 
Schwab  and  Fielden.  A  reversal  of  judgment  was  demanded 
on  the  technical  ground  that  the  defendants  had  not  been  pres- 
ent, in  person,  when  the  State  Supreme  Court  had  rendered 
its  decision,  affirming  the  judgment  of  the  lower  court;  but 
the  United  States  Supreme  Court  decided  against  the  appel- 
lants. 

As  a  monument  in  honor  of  the  policemen  who  fell  in  the 
discharge  of  their  duty,  on  the  night  of  May  4,  1886,  the  grate- 
ful citizens  of  Chicago  have  erected  a  statue — the  figure  of  an 
officer  in  heroic  size — on  the  very  spot  where  the  bomb  fell. 
A  more  emphatic  expression  of  their  resolution  to  suppress 
every  attack  against  law  and  order  was  the  request  of  Chi- 
cago citizens  that  the  federal  government  establish,  near  the 
city,  a  fort  with  an  adequate  force  of  United  States  troops.  In 
addition  to  their  request  the  citizens  donated  to  the  govern- 
ment a  site  suitable  for  the  desired  fort,  and  within  a  few 
months  Fort  Sheridan — on  the  lake  shore,  an  hour's  ride  from 
the  city — was  established.  To  one  familiar  with  Chicago's 
history  the  following  comparison  must  occur:  Fort  Dear- 
born, in  its  time,  was  erected  to  protect  the  little  settlement  on 
the  Chicago  river  from  the  attacks  of  the  barbarous  red  man, 
and  when  the  danger  from  the  Indians  ceased,  the  fort  was 

269 


done  away  with.  In  1886,  red  anarchy  threatened  Chicago  with 
another  form  of  barbarism,  and  Fort  Sheridan  was  erected  to 
protect  civilization  and  maintain  peace.  In  three  decades 
Fort  Dearborn  had  outlived  its  usefulness.  Fort  Sheridan 
will  doubtless  endure  for  a  longer  period,  although  from  it  can 
never  come  the  final  answer  to  the  social  question.  It  will 
stand  as  a  stronghold  of  peace,  an  imposing  demonstration  of 
the  force  and  power  of  the  state-conserving  elements. 

The  oft-repeated  assertion  that  anarchy  in  the  United  States 
is  a  curse  for  which  the  Germans  are  particularly  responsible, 
is  entirely  erroneous.  In  judging  a  morbid  social  condition 
which,  like  anarchy,  makes  its  appearance  in  all  states  of  Europe 
as  well  as  in  America,  there  should  be  no  room  for  national 
prejudices.  It  was  owing  to  the  lax  administration  of  the 
city's  laws  and  to  demagogy  in  local  politics  that  the  anarch- 
ists of  Chicago  dared  prepare  for  a  "  propaganda  of  deed." 
There  was  a  time,  before  the  bomb-throwing,  when  certain 
local  politicians  truckled  to  the  anarchistic  element.  One  must 
not  too  closely  scrutinize  the  causes  which  warranted  a  Parsons 
or  a  Spies  in  believing  that  he  was  a  power  in  the  common- 
wealth if  one  does  not  wish  to  come  to  the  logical  conclusion 
that  anarchy,  in  the  form  in  which  it  prevailed  in  Chicago,  was 
strictly  of  American  development,  and  that  nowhere  else  in  the 
world  could  it  have  attained  so  rank  a  growth.  Demagogy 
alone  was  responsible  for  the  Haymarket  massacre.  There 
the  political  demagogue  and  the  labor  demagogue  lent  each 
other  helping  hands.  Parsons  and  Spies  were  typical  leaders 
of  the  anarchists — Parsons  who  boasted  his  descent  from  the 
Englishmen  \vho  landed  in  Narragansett  Bay  in  1622,  and 
Spies  who  confessed  to  becoming  first  a  socialist  and  then  an 
anarchist  after  coming  to  the  United  States.  But  it  is  imma- 
terial what  language  madness  speaks.  Anarchy  has  no  father- 
land. It  breaks  out  in  France,  Spain,  England  and  Germany 
as  well  as  in  America.  Only,  owing  to  the  national  institution 
of  demagogy,  it  was  for  a  long  time  not  only  tolerated  in  Chi- 

270 


cago,  but  was  even  fostered  as  a  legitimate  political  insti- 
tution. 

The  story  of  the  Haymarket  massacre  and  the  anarchist 
troubles  in  Chicago  is  here  incorporated  in  the  chapter  on  the 
general  labor  movement — not  because  the  anarchists  had  any 
legitimate  connection  with  labor  development  but  for  purposes 
of  contrast.  As  has  been  stated,  legitimate  labor  movement 
consists  principally  in  the  absolutely  justifiable  and  almost 
necessary  strife  for  a  reasonably  short  working-day.  Only 
when  the  time  made  free  by  ingeniously  contrived  machinery, 
which  replaces  human  power  and  human  skill,  is  given  to  pro- 
ductive laborers  of  the  world,  will  there  be  a  just  and  general 
participation  of  all  mankind  in  the  material  blessings  which 
have  resulted  from  the  reformation  of  industrial  affairs  through 
modern  technic.  Calamitous,  indeed,  would  be  the  result  of 
any  attempt  to  artificially  prohibit  the  adaptation  of  things  to  the 
new  economic  conditions  of  existence,  but  still  more  pernicious 
would  be  the  effect  of  unduly  hastening  this  change.  There 
must  first  be  developed  a  social  basis  upon  which  the  working 
world  may  be  granted  its  share  of  leisure  time  and  increased 
material  comforts  made  possible  by  modern  machinery.  The 
question  can  never  be  adjudicated  one-sidedly  or  sporadically, 
but  only  in  the  slow  and  difficult  way  of  international  co-opera- 
tion. Never  with  force — ever  in  peace  and  harmony. 

The  labor  movement  in  Chicago  is  healthy  and  has  met 
with  great  success.  It  is  legitimately  progressive,  and  the 
intelligent  foreign  workman  has  his  full  share  in  its  develop- 
ment. Great  reforms  cannot  be  brought  about  over  night, 
but  must  be  achieved  with  patience,  self-denial  and  persistence. 
Such  is  the  way  of  the  world,  and  he  who  knows  it  not,  suffers 
for  his  ignorance. 


271 


The  Cronin   Case. 

The  history  of  the  development  of  cosmopolitan  Chicago  is 
rich  in  extraordinary  features,  which  strongly  reflect  the  char- 
acter of  the  elements  that  have  formed  the  city.  It  is  in  this 
connection  that  the  Cronin  tragedy  is  to  be  considered  here. 
The  murder  of  Dr.  Cronin,  aside  from  its  peculiarly  brutal 
and  cowardly  execution,  is  particularly  remarkable  as  it  is 
closely  connected  with  the  Celtic  movement  in  America  for  the 
freedom  of  Ireland.  Not  that  the  crime  was  the  natural  or 
legitimate  result  of  Irish  agitation,  for  it  was  not,  but  because 
it  brought  to  public  notice  the  magnitude  and  theretofore 
almost  hidden  power  of  a  movement  in  which  a  large  number 
of  American  citizens  were  interested. 

May  4,  1889,  in  a  lonely  little  cottage  in  the  northwest  part 
of  Chicago,  Patrick  Henry  Cronin,  an  Irish  patriot  and  Ameri- 
can citizen,  was  beaten  to  death  by  a  band  of  assassins.  His 
accusing  voice  forever  stilled,  the  murderers  disposed  of  their 
victim's  body,  and  turned  to  the  work  of  assassinating  his 
character.  Their  plans  were  cunningly  laid.  Every  detail  of 
the  cowardly  conspiracy  had  been  fixed  in  advance.  There 
seemed  no  chance  of  failure.  But  somebody  blundered — 
crime  always  blunders.  And  so  the  mutilated  body  of  the 
man  they  martyred  was  discoved  in  the  Lake- View  sewer; 
the  plot  to  kill  his  character  failed;  some  of  the  conspirators 
were  punished,  others  died  miserably,  and  Cronin,  dead, 
became  a  greater  power  than  Cronin  living. 

Irishmen  killed  him,  but  no  thoughtful  man  will  sympathize 
with  those  Americans,  or  Englishmen,  or  Germans  who  hold 

272 


the  Irish  race  responsible  for  Dr.  Cronin's  death.  No  Irish- 
man worthy  the  name  but  condemns  the  brutal  murder.  John 
F.  Finerty  spoke  for  his  countrymen,  when  at  a  meeting,  in 
the  interest  of  the  Irish  National  League  in  August  following 
the  murder,  he  said: 

I  would  deem  it  under  other  circumstances  quite  unnecessary  to  emphasize  before 
the  American  people  the  unwavering  devotion  of  Irish  American  citizens  to  the  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States,  but  a  tragedy  was  recently  enacted  in  our  midst,  the  victim  of 
which  was  one  of  our  own  race,  that  has  been  made  the  occasion  of  venting  upon  us  as 
a  people,  and  upon  our  society  as  a  body,  the  spleen  and  venom  of  persons  who,  claiming 
to  be  super-loyal  to  the  republic,  have  not  the  claim  to  honest  loyalty  which  we,  as  a  race, 
hold  upon  this  continent. 

It  has  been  asserted  by  those  instrumental  in  covering  us  with  defamation  that  we 
wish  to  screen  the  murderers  of  Dr.  Cronin.  We  meet  here  to-day,  among  other  reasons, 
for  the  purpose  of  vehemently  denouncing  his  atrocious  murder  in  our  capacity  as 
American  citizens ;  but  we  claim  that,  as  Irish  Americans,  we  should  no  more  be  held 
responsible  for  that  foul  atrocity,  than  any  other  element  of  the  body  politic  for  crimes 
committed  by  persons  to  whom  they  are  kindred.  We  devoutly  hope  that  the  officers 
authorized  by  the  law  will  succeed  in  bringing  to  justice  the  assassins  of  Dr.  Cronin. 

We  repudiate,  both  as  American  citizens  and  as  Irish-Americans,  the  claim  made  by 
the  enemies  of  our  race  that  the  Irish  element  has  any  desire,  or  any  purpose,  to  make 
the  soil  of  America  the  theatre  of  acts  of  vengeance  because  of  feuds,  factions  or 
disagreements  growing  out  of  political  differences  or  personal  heartburnings. 

Mr.  Finerty  was  right.  The  Heights  of  Abraham,  red  with 
the  blood  of  Montgomery;  the  waves  of  Champlain,  brilliant 
with  the  victory  of  McDonough;  the  plains  of  Chalmette,  still 
radiant  with  the  martial  fire  of  Jackson;  the  convent  of  Cheru- 
busco,  still  ringing  with  the  war  shout  of  Shields;  the  sunken 
road  at  Antietam,  that  saw  the  green  flag  of  Meagher's  Irish 
brigade  rise  and  fall  beside  the  stars  and  stripes  as  color-bearer 
after  color-bearer  went  down  before  the  withering  breath  of 
the  rebel  front  of  flame ;  the  valley  of  Cedar  Creek,  in  which 
the  heroic  figure  of  Phil.  Sheridan  lives  as  immortally  as  that  of 
Napoleon  at  Marengo — all  these  examples  and  more  could 
be  summoned  to  the  bar  of  public  opinion,  if  it  were  necessary, 
to  convince  the  American  people  that  the  Irish-Americans  do 
not  lack  patriotism. 

Fiction  furnishes  no  tale  of  crime  so  sinister,  so  cold-blooded, 
so  cowardly  as  the  murder  of  Cronin.  Gaboriau  never  con- 
ceived a  plot  so  intricate,  Dumas  never  told  a  story  of  more 
enthralling  interest.  But  why  was  the  "  removal "  of  Cronin 

18 

273 


desired  ?  Who  were  his  enemies,  and  how  had  he  gained  their 
enmity?  How  would  his  death  benefit  them?  These  were  the 
questions  that  confronted  the  officers  of  the  law  upon  the 
disappearance  of  the  physician.  They  found  a  theory 
ready  on  the  tongues  of  Cronin's  friends,  that  he  had 
had  fallen  a  victim  to  a  political  conspiracy,  the  conspirators 
being  scattered  over  two  continents,  the  ramifications  of  the 
plot  extending  in  several  directions,  involving  people  of  high 
reputation  and  their  tools  of  no  reputation.  The  motto  of  the 
conspirators  was  "Dead  men  tell  no  tales;"  their  object  was 
the  deliberate  taking-off  certain  men,  Cronin  among  the  num- 
ber, in  order  that  certain  secrets  affecting  the  reputation  of 
Irishmen  of  great  power  and  high  standing  might  not  be  made 
public.  Upon  the  discovery  of  the  body  the  officers  of  the 
law  adopted  this  theory,  the  coroner's  jury  and  grand  jury  sub- 
sequently indorsed  it,  and  finally,  upon  circumstantial  evidence 
of  its  correctness,  twelve  men  sentenced  three  of  the  tools 
who  did  the  bidding  of  the  arch-plotters  to  the  penitentiary 
for  life.  Here  the  officers  of  the  law  rested.  But  Cronin 
will  not  down.  While  they  live,  his  friends  will  continue  the 
search  for  evidence  against  his  murderers. 

Patrick    Henrv    Cronin    was    an    Irish    enthusiast.      Born 

•i 

in  the  town  of  Mallow,  in  County  Cork,  August  7> 
1846,  he  was  brought  to  the  United  States  while  a 
babe  in  his  mother's  arms.  His  childhood  was  spent 
in  New  York  City,  his  education  gained  in  the  Christian 
Brothers'  Academy,  of  St.  Catherine's,  province  of  Ontario. 
Manhood  found  him  running  a  drug  store  in  St.  Louis  and 
studying  medicine  at  the  Missouri  College.  He  was  identi- 
fied with  the  state  militia,  and  in  1877  did  valiant  service 
during  the  labor  riots  in  St.  Louis.  After  a  year  in  Europe 
he  returned  to  Missouri,  accepting  the  professorship  of  materia 
medica  in  the  St.  Louis  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons. 
He  came  to  Chicago  in  1882  and  continued  to  practice  suc- 
cessfully 

274 


He  was  identified  with  many  political,  secret  and  social 
societies.  At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  president  of  the 
Celto-American  Club  of  Chicago,  Deputy  Grand  Regent  of 
the  Royal  Arcanum,  Past  Commander  of  the  Knights  of 
Pythias,  Chief  Ranger  of  the  Catholic  Order  of  Foresters, 
member  of  the  Royal  League,  Legion  of  Honor,  Ancient 
Order  of  Hibernians  and  Ancient  Order  of  United  Work- 
men. 

Personally,  Dr.  Cronin  was  a  typical  Irishman— brave,  loyal 
and  warm-hearted;  impulsive,  vindictive  and  relentless;  a  friend 
for  life  and  a  foe  till  death.  His  only  surviving  relatives  are  a 
sister,  Mrs.  Carroll,  living  at  St.  Catherines,  Ont.,  a  brother 
John,  living  on  an  Arkansas  farm,  and  two  nieces,  Sisters  in  a 
Canadian  convent.  Dr.  Cronin  was  nearly  six  feet  tall,  well 
proportioned,  of  dark  complexion,  with  black  hair  and  eyes. 

IN  THE   CLAN-NA-GAEL. 

All  his  life  Cronin  was  identified  with  organizations  having 
for  their  object  the  liberation  of  Ireland.  The  most  powerful 
of  these  organizations  was — and  is — the  United  Brotherhood 
(Clan-na-Gael).  It  counted  its  camps  by  hundreds,  its  mem- 
bers by  thousands  and  tens  of  thousands.  Its  agents  were 
everywhere.  Its  strength  was  enormous,  its  wealth  great  and 
its  movements  as  silent  as  the  grave.  Founded  in  1869,  m 
ten  years  it  had  penetrated  every  part  of  the  North  American 
continent.  The  membership  of  the  organization  was  divided 
into  districts  and  the  districts  into  local  lodges  or  "camps." 
Each  district  had  its  general  officer,  to  whose  authority  each 
local  camp  was  subject,  and  the  district  officers  in  turn  made 
up  an  executive  board.  This  body  possessed  absolute  control 
of  the  organization. 

In  1 88 1  the  United  Brotherhood  held  a  national  convention 
in  Chicago.  It  had  never  been  so  powerful — so  prosperous. 
Irish  patriots,  by  the  thousand,  had  become  associated  with  it, 
moved  by  its  principles.  Irish  politicians,  in  almost  like 

275 


numbers,  were  attracted  to  it  by  the  secret  political  influ- 
ence it  wielded.  Irish  vagabonds  joined,  where  they  could,  for 
what  there  might  be  in  it.  The  Chicago  convention  changed 
the  system  of  government  of  the  Brotherhood,  confiding  the 
supreme  control  to  an  executive  board  of  five  men,  three  of 
whom  formed  a  quorum.  Alexander  Sullivan,  of  Chicago, 
Michael  Boland,  of  Kansas  City,  and  D.  C.  Feeley,  of  Roch- 
ester, were  elected  to  this  board,  and,  working  together,  con- 
trolled it.  From  the  day  the  convention  adjourned,  this 
"  triangle  "  assumed  a  despotic  sway  over  the  order.  Although 
they  found  a  full  treasury  they  soon  promulgated  an  order 
that  each  camp  should  forward  to  the  national  executive 
committee  nearly  its  entire  receipts  in  lieu  of  the  ten  per  cent 
formerly  demanded.  As  a  result  of  this  order  it  has  been 
estimated  that  the  "  triangle "  had  placed  at  its  disposal 
between  three  and  four  hundred  thousand  dollars. 

About  this  time  true  friends  of  Ireland  were  shocked  at  the 
inauguration  of  what  was  termed  a  "  physical  force  "  policy. 
In  the  next  few  years  there  occurred  in  various  parts  of 
England  dynamite  explosions,  each  followed  by  the  capture 
and  subsequent  imprisonment  of  the  men  supposed  to  be 
primarily  concerned.  In  almost  every  case  the  apprehension 
and  arrest  of  the  foolish  tools  were  made  under  such  circum- 
stances as  to  indicate  clearly  that  the  dynamitard  was  betrayed. 
In  the  five  years,  between  1881  and  1885,  twenty-nine  Irish 
revolutionists  were  sent  from  America  into  English  prisons. 
A  prominent  Irish-American  has  declared  that  each  of  these 
men  wras  betrayed  to  the  British  government  before  he  landed 
on  British  soil.  The  fact  that  few  of  the  men  got  far  enough 
along  with  their  missions  to  do  any  damage,  supports  this 
theory.  The  conclusion  was  that  men  in  the  confidence  of  the 
friends  of  Ireland  in  America  were  plotting  to  wreck  the  Irish 
cause.  They  found  plenty  of  ignorant  tools  who  could  be 
persuaded  that  no  crime  was  too  dreadful  if  done  to  free 
Ireland.  The  plotters  told  the  tools  what  to  do  and  how  to  do 

276 


it,  and  at  the  same  time  warned  their  English  allies  as  to  what 
was  going  on.  A  record  of  the  arrest  and  conviction  of  these 
deluded  men  was  compiled  and  published  by  Henry  M.  Hunt, 
in  his  story  of  the  Cronin  case.  It  is  here  reproduced: 


DATE  OF 

SENTENCE. 

NAME. 

CRIME. 

SENTENCE. 

1881. 
May. 

1  James  McGrath. 
)  James  McKevitt. 

Attempt  to  blow  up  Liver- 
pool town  hall. 

Life. 
20  years. 

1882. 
Jan.  31. 

John  Tobin. 

Illegal  possession  of  nitro- 
glycerine. 

7  years. 

July  31. 

Thomas  Walsh. 

Illegal  possession  of  nitro- 
glycerine. 

7  years. 

1883. 
May  28. 

f  Thomas  Gallagher. 
A.  G  Whitehead. 
H.  H.  Wilson. 
i  John  Curtin. 
j  William  Tansey. 
Pat  Noughton. 
I  Pat  Rogerson. 
[James  Kelly. 

Illegal  manufacture  of  nitro- 
glycerine at  Birmingham 
and  transfer  of  it  to  Lon- 
don Exposition   at  Wes- 
ton  house  in  Galway. 

Life. 
Life. 
Life. 
Life. 
14,  years. 
8  years. 
12  years. 
2  years. 

July  30. 

f  Timothy  Featherstone. 
1  Dennis  Deasy. 
j  Pat  Flannigan. 
[  Henry  Dalton. 

Illegal  possession  of  infer- 
nal machines. 

Life. 
Life. 
Life. 
Life. 

Dec.  21. 

f  James  McCullough. 
Thomas  Dewanney. 
Peter  Callahan. 
Henry  McCann. 
!  Terrance  McDermott. 
1  Dennis  Casey. 
I  Pat  McCabe. 
James  Kelly. 
James  Donnelly. 
[_  Patrick  Drum. 

Outrages    at    Glasgow    in 
January,  1883. 

Life. 

Life. 
Life. 
Life. 
Life. 
7  years. 
7  years. 
7  years. 
7  years. 
5  years. 

1884. 
July  29. 

I  John  Daly. 
1  J.  F.  Egan. 

Illegal  possession  of  infer- 
nal machines. 

Life. 
20  years. 

1885. 
March. 

Patrick  Levy. 

Explosion    at     Mill     street 
Barracks. 

1  year. 

May  18. 

j  J.  G.  Cunningham. 
j  H.  Burton. 

Explosion  at  Tower  of  Lon- 
don. 

Life. 
Life. 

Nov.  18. 

J.  Wallace. 

Murder  at  Solihall. 

20  years. 

Cronin  and  his  associates  attributed  the  "physical  force" 
policy  to  the  executive  board  of   the  United    Brotherhood. 


277 


They  also  believed  that  the  poor  fellows  who  had  been  com- 
missioned to  perform  the  deeds  of  violence  were  betrayed. 
The  sentiment  of  the  civilized  world  was  turning  against  Ire- 
land. On  the  heels  of  this  feeling,  which  was  giving  the  loyal 
members  of  the  United  Brotherhood  the  greatest  concern, 
came  a  call  from  the  executive  committee  for  more  money. 
No  member  of  the  order,  save  the  "triangle"  and  its  few 
confidants  could  understand  .the  dissipation  of  the  vast  sum 
that  had  filled  the  treasury  at  the  time  of  the  Chicago  conven- 
tion. An  investigation  was  asked.  The  "triangle"  refused 
it.  The  refusal  served  to  heighten  the  suspicions  of  the  men 
who  were  foremost  in  the  opposition  to  the  Messrs.  Sullivan, 
Feeley  and  Boland.  Cronin,  with  John  Devoy,  of  New  York, 
and  Luke  Dillon,  of  Philadelphia,  led  in  the  attack.  In  the 
Clan-na-Gael  camp  of  which  he  was  a  member,  Dr.  Cronin 
read  a  letter  from  a  camp  that  had  been  expelled  by  the  "tri- 
angle." For  this  he  was  tried  in  1885,  pronounced  guilty  of 
treason  and  expelled  from  the  order. 

Other  expulsions  followed,  but  these  radical  methods  did  not 
quell  the  rising  storm.  The  United  Brotherhood  was  split 
in  twain.  Hostility  to  Sullivan,  Boland  and  Feeley  crystallized 
rapidly.  Men  of  ability  and  force  directed  the  opposi- 
tion, and  gradually  the  "  triangle "  gave  ground  until  it  was 
completely  out  of  office.  Cronin,  Devoy  and  Dillon  kept  up 
their  attack,  directing  it  personally  against  Sullivan.  In  1888 
an  attempt  was  made  to  reunite  the  Brotherhood.  Leaders 
of  both  wings  of  the  society  met  in  Chicago.  It  was  decided 
that  the  acts  of  the  executives  of  the  Brotherhood  from  1881 
should  be  investigated  and  that  its  accounts  be  audited.  A  trial 
committee,  composed  of  three  men  from  each  faction,  was 
appointed.  The  men  named  on  this  committee  were: 

Dr.  P.  H.  Cronin,  Chicago. 

Dr.  P.  McCahey,  Philadelphia. 

James  J.  Rogers,  Brooklyn. 

Christopher  F.  Byrne,  Saxonville,  Mass. 


P.  A.  O'Boyle,  Pittston,  Pa. 

John  D.  McMahon,  Rome,  N.  Y. 

The  trial  board  met  in  New  York  in  September,  1888. 
Boland,  Feeley  and  Sullivan  were  on  hand.  The  latter  filed 
a  statement  alleging  that  Cronin  was  his  personal  enemy,  that 
he  had  expressed  opinions  in  the  case,  and  that  he  was  a 
perjurer,  unfit  to  sit  on  the  trial  board.  His  protest  was  over- 
ruled. Then  the  trial  began.  John  Devoy  and  Luke  Dillon 
filed  charges  against  the  "  triangle."  They  alleged  misap- 
propriation of  funds  of  the  Brotherhood,  desertion  of  men  sent 
on  the  society's  business,  illegal  manipulations  of  conventions 
and  the  like.  The  trial,  of  course,  was  secret.  At  its  conclu- 
sion, McCahey  and  Cronin  were  the  only  members  of  the 
board  who  voted  "  guilty."  The  majority  acquitted  the 
"  triangle,"  and  voted  that  every  record  of  the  trial  be 
destroyed.  Cronin  demanded  that  the  evidence  be  written  up 
and  sent  to  every  camp  of  the  Clan,  together  with  the  verdict. 
This  being  voted  down,  he  refused  to  surrender  his  private 
notes  of  the  trial.  He  and  McCahey  prepared  a  minority 
report,  and  demanded  that  it  be  published.  This  demand  was 
also  refused.  Cronin  still  insisted  on  publicity,  and,  finally, 
announced  his  intention  of  making  an  open  statement  of  the 
whole  affair  at  the  meeting  of  the  Irish  National  League  of 
America,  which  was  to  assemble  at  Philadelphia  in  1889.  On 
his  return  to  Chicago  he  read  the  report  of  the  minority  in  his 
own  camp.  From  this  time  until  his  death,  Dr.  Cronin  was 
active  in  his  determination  to  publish  to  the  world  what  he 
believed  to  be  the  treachery  of  the  Sullivan  wing  of  the 
United  Brotherhood  to  the  cause  of  Ireland.  If  the  men  the 
physician  accused  were  innocent  of  treachery — as  the  law  has 
held  them  to  be  innocent  of  his  death — the  murder  was  a 
greater  misfortune  to  them  than  to  the  victim.  In  the  minds 
of  a  majority  of  his  fellows  Cronin  was  a  martyr — the  men  he 
accused  must  live  and  die  under  a  cloud. 


279 


THE   PHYSICIAN   DISAPPEARS. 

Dr.  Cronin  had  not  been  missing  from  his  home  twenty- 
four  hours  when  his  intimates  declared  their  belief  that  he  had 
been  murdered.  The  Monday  following  his  disappearance — 
he  was  killed  Saturday  night — Patrick  Cooney,  one  of  the 
actual  instruments  in  the  physician's  death,  was  in  New  York, 
attempting  to  lure  John  Devoy  to  a  similar  fate.  Luke  Dillon 
and  P.  McCahey,  of  Philadelphia,  completed  the  quartette 
marked  for  "removal."  The  blunder  in  the  disposition  of 
Cronin's  body  seems  to  have  unnerved  the  plotters;  its  dis- 
covery and  the  active  investigation  that  followed  completed 
their  rout ;  exposure  and  conviction  followed,  and  such  of  the 
murder  gang  as  escaped  sought  their  holes. 

As  has  been  said,  the  plan  for  the  "removal"  of  Cronin  was 
carefully  matured;  every  detail  was  thought  out  and  failure 
seemed  impossible.  A  lonely  cottage  was  rented  from  an 
ignorant  landlord.  A  plausible  business  agreement  was 
arranged  between  a  man  who  lived  near  the  cottage  and 
Cronin,  in  order  that  the  physician  would  respond  to  a  call  at 
any  time  without  telling  his  friends  where  he  was  going.  An 
officer  of  the  law,  who  could  do  so  without  attracting  atten- 
tion, hired  a  horse  and  buggy  to  carry  the  victim  to  his  doom. 
A  stranger  in  Chicago  was  found  to  do  the  driving.  Human 
tools  were  secured  who  wrould  beat  to  death  any  one  they  were 
told  to — providing  only  that  they  could  strike  from  behind  and 
in  the  dark.  Other  human  tools  were  told  off  to  strip  the  body, 
stuff  it  in  the  trunk  and  hurry  it  through  the  darkness  to  the 
lake  shore.  A  tug  in  charge  of  "trusty"  men  was  assigned 
to  meet  the  body  and  sink  it  in  the  lake.  The  clothes  were  to 
be  shipped  to  London.  "Witnesses"  were  assigned  who 
remembered,  after  the  disappearance,  of  seeing  Cronin  on  the 
way  to  a  railroad  depot  the  night  of  May  4.  Other  "wit- 
nesses" were  chosen  who  saw  him  in  Canada  the  following 
week.  Still  others  were  selected  who  should  see  him  in  New 
York  and  on  the  ocean  and  in  Paris.  Finally  a  body,  dressed 

280 


in  his  clothes  and  bearing  documents  making  him  out  a  traitor 
to  the  Irish  cause,  was  to  be  found  in  the  river  Thames.  And 
then  the  men  whose  reputation  he  had  assailed  would  be 
"vindicated." 

Condemned  to  die  by  a  secret  court  from  whose  decision 
there  was  no  appeal,  Dr.  Cronin  sat  in  his  office  in  the  Wind- 
sor theatre  building  on  the  last  night  of  his  life,  dismissing  a 
patient  preparatory  to  attending  a  meeting  of  the  Celto- Amer- 
ican club,  of  which  he  was  president.  There  came  a  hurried 
ring  at  the  door;  Mrs.  T.  T.  Conklin,  the  landlady, 
answered  the  call.  A  rough  stranger  brushed  past  her  into 
the  house,  demanding  to  see  Dr.  Cronin.  His  manner  was 
excited,  his  eye  furtive,  his  nervousness  ill-concealed.  In  the 
physician's  presence  he  produced  a  printed  business  card 
from  the  O'Sullivan  Ice  Company. 

"  Doctor,"  he  said,  "  one  of  P.  O'Sullivan's  workmen  has 
been  terribly  injured.  Unless  a  physician  sees  him  at  once,  he 
will  die.  O'Sullivan  is  out  of  town,  but  he  has  often  told  us 
to  come  to  you  if  any  of  the  men  got  hurt." 

The  physician  hesitated,  glanced  at  his  watch,  and  said: 
"  I'll  be  with  you  in  a  moment." 

"  I  have  a  fast  horse  at  the  door,"  said  the  stranger.  Cronin 
seized  his  instrument  case,  donned  his  hat  and  coat,  and  led 
the  way  to  the  sidewalk.  At  the  curb  stood  a  buggy,  with  a 
white  horse  in  the  shafts.  As  the  doctor  started  to  climb  into  the 
waiting  vehicle,  Frank  T.  Scanlan  approached.  "  I  cannot  be 
at  the  meeting  to-night,  Frank,"  he  said,  "  there  has  been  an 
accident  out  in  Lake  View,  and  I  have  been  sent  for."  In 
another  instant  he  was  in  the  buggy,  the  ill-favored  stranger 
sprang  to  his  seat  beside  him,  gathered  up  the  reins,  and  they 
rattled  away  northward.  His  friends  never  saw  the  physician 
alive  again,  but  the  first  link  of  evidence  against  his  murderers 
was  already  forged.  Scanlan  and  Mrs.  Conklin,  from  the 
window  of  the  flat  above,  had  seen  the  mysterious  driver  and 
the  white  horse. 

281 


All  that  long  Saturday  night  the  Conklins  listened  in  vain 
for  the  home-coming  of  their  tenant.  Mrs.  Conklin  told  her 
husband  of  the  mysterious  caller.  The  tell-tale  card  was 
found  on  the  doctor's  office  table.  Early  Sunday  morning 
Conklin  drove  to  Lake  View,  and  sought  out  O'Sullivan. 
The  iceman  denied  all  knowledge  of  the  affair.  Conklin's 
fears  were  verified.  He  and  his  wife  had  been  Cronin's  con- 
fidants. They  knew  his  life  had  been  attempted  on  previous 
occasions.  The  police  were  notified.  The  services  of  the 
Pinkertons  were  enlisted.  The  search  for  the  white  horse  and 
the  mysterious  driver  began. 

Two  policemen  on  duty  in  the  vicinity  of  Clark  and  Diversey 
streets  reported  that  soon  after  midnight  of  Saturday,  a  light 
wagon,  drawn  by  a  bay  horse,  with  three  or  four  men  and  a 
large  trunk  in  the  wagon  passed  north  on  Clark  street  at  a 
rapid  rate.  Several  hours  later  the  wagon  rattled  past  them 
again,  this  time  headed  toward  the  city.  The  trunk  was  not 
then  in  the  wagon,  but  the  next  day  a  trunk,  the  interior 
stained  with  blood  and  partially  filled  with  bloody  absorbent 
cotton,  was  found  near  Evanston  avenue  and  Sultzer  street. 
The  trunk  was  new,  and  large  enough  to  hold  the  body  of  a 
man  six  feet  tall.  The  lock  of  the  trunk  had  been  smashed, 
and  in  their  haste  to  remove  the  body  of  their  victim  the  mur- 
derers had  thrown  the  cover  back  with  such  force  as  to  break 
the  sheet-iron  hinges.  On  closer  examination  of  the  bloody 
cotton,  a  lock  of  black  hair,  evidently  torn  from  the  scalp  of 
a  man,  was  found.  This  hair  was  declared  by  Dr.  Cronin's 
friends  to  be  from  the  missing  man's  head. 

An  examination  of  the  neighborhood  about  the  spot  where 
the  trunk  was  found,  developed  a  fresh  trail  of  wagon  tracks 
to  the  lake  shore,  near  Hollywood  and  Bryn  Mawr  avenues. 
The  next  day  Officer  Wade,  of  the  Edgewater  police,  reported 
that  about  i  oclock  Sunday  morning  he  saw  a  horse  and 
wagon  standing  on  the  lake  shore,  at  the  point  indicated  by 
the  wagon  tracks.  Wade  asked  the  men  in  the  wagon  what 

282 


they  were  doing  there  at  that  hour.  One  of  the  men  replied 
that  they  were  looking  for  the  Lake  Shore  Drive.  When  the 
officer  told  them  that  they  were  two  miles  off  the  road,  they 
turned  their  horse's  head  toward  Evanston  avenue  and  drove 
hurriedly  away.  Wade  saw  the  trunk  in  the  wagon. 

Stimulated  by  the  evidence  thus  gathered,  the  police  pushed 
their  investigations  with  energy.  All  the  livery  stables  on  the 
North  Side  were  visited,  in  an  attempt  to  locate  the  white 
horse  and  his  mysterious  driver,  described  by  Frank  Scanlan 
and  Mrs.  Conklin.  The  search  proved  of  no  avail.  The 
man  who  could  have  furnished  the  desired  clue  held  his  peace 
for  the  time.  The  lake  shore  was  examined  for  traces  of  a 
grave.  Ponds  in  the  neighborhood  were  raked,  and,  finally, 
the  river  was  dragged  for  a  distance  of  several  hundred  feet, 
either  way,  from  the  Fullerton  avenue  bridge,  over  which  the 
wagon  with  its  bloody  freight  was  supposed  to  have  crossed. 
No  further  clue  was  found.  Dr.  Cronin  had  disappeared  as 
magically  as  if  the  earth  had  yawned  and  swallowed  him  up, 
and  the  bloody  trunk  promised  to  remain  a  mystery. 

Thursday,  May  9,  five  days  after  Cronin  disappeared,  the 
West  Side  police  arrested  Frank  J.  Black,  alias  Woodruff ,  who 
was  attempting  to  sell  a  horse  and  wagon  for  $10.  When 
put  upon  the  rack  the  horse-thief  told  a  lurid  story  about  being 
hired  to  haul  a  trunk  from  the  rear  of  528  North  State  street 
at  2  o'clock  Sunday  morning.  He  stole  the  horse  and  .wagon 
from  Dean's  livery  stable,  where  he  was  working,  and  claimed 
to  have  been  horrified  when  he  discovered  that  he  was  haul- 
ing the  corpse  of  a  young  woman.  His  story  was  so  worded 
as  to  implicate  Dr.  Cronin  as  one  of  the  men  who  employed 
him.  He  claimed  to  have  driven  over  the  route  already  known 
to  the  police  and  to  have  thrown  the  bloody  trunk  from  the 
wagon  at  the  point  where  it  was  found.  His  story  did  not 
hang  together  on  cross-examination,  but  the  police  were  satis- 
fied that  he  knew  something  of  the  crime  and  he  was  detained. 

Although  there  had  been  a  blunder  in  the  disposition  of  the 

283 


body  of  their  victim — the  expected  tug  not  having  met  them 
on  the  lake  shore — Dr.  Cronin's  murderers  now  proceeded  to 
carry  out  their  scheme  of  assassinating  his  character.  Vague 
rumors  from  various  sources  began  to  find  their  way  into  the 
newspapers.  It  was  hinted  that  he  had  left  the  city  of  his  own 
free  will  and  that  his  alleged  mysterious  disappearance  was  a 
scheme  of  his  own,  conceived  for  the  purpose  of  attaining  a 
sensational  notoriety.  He  was  represented  as  being  an 
erratic,  ambitious  individual  who  thirsted  for  sensationalism. 
These  innuendoes  were  echoed  by  certain  members  .of  the 
police  force — then  as  now  honey-combed  with  the  triangle  influ- 
ence. Following  hints  came  alleged  statements  of  facts.  Miss 
Annie  Murphy,  an  employe  in  the  Recorder's  office,  an  elo- 
cutionist who  had  figured  on  programs  at  Irish  entertainments 
with  Dr.  Cronin,  and  who  would  consequently  be  able  to 
readily  identify  him,  came  forward  the  day  after  Woodruff's 
alleged  confession  with  a  statement  that  she  had  seen  the  phys- 
ician on  a  Clark  street  car  about  9  o'clock  on  the  night  of  his 
disappearance.  He  had  his  instrument  case  in  his  hand,  she 
said,  and  was  bound  down-town.  Next  came  William  Dwyer, 
a  North  Chicago  street  car  conductor,  who  corroborated  Miss 
Murphy's  statement  in  detail. 

When  the  body  of  the  doctor  was  found  two  weeks  later  it 
was  learned  that  Miss  Murphy's  father  was  a  member  of  the 
triangle  wing  of  the  United  Brotherhood  and  an  officer  in  a 
local  camp.  Conductor  Dwyer  was  not  known  to  be  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Clan,  but  he  suddenly  threw  up  his  position  with  the 
street  car  company  and  went  to  Canada  "  for  his  health."  But 
we  anticipate. 

On  the  night  of  Friday,  May  10,  several  Chicago  newspa- 
pers received  from  Toronto  dispatches  to  the  effect  that  Dr. 
Cronin  had  been  seen  in  Jhe  Canadian  city,  alive  and  well. 
These  dispatches  were  from  Charles  T.  Long,  whose  father 
was  publisher  of  a  Toronto  newspaper.  Previously  Long  had 
been  a  reporter  on  one  or  more  of  the  Chicago  dailies;  he 

284 


knew  Dr.  Cronin  well,  and  thus  his  reports  were  looked  upon 
as  practically  clearing  up  the  disappearance  of  the  physi- 
cian. Saturday  morning  the  Chicago  Herald  printed  the 
following : 

Dr.  P.  H.  Cronin  is  in  Canada.  He  was  seen,  recognized  and  spoken  to  here  to-day 
by  a  former  Chicagoan,  and  in  return  told  of  his  troubles,  bitterly  denouncing  a  number 
of  Garden  City  people,  Alexander  Sullivan  particularly.  The  missing  and  supposed-to- 
be  murdered  physician  seemed  to  be  slightly  deranged.  C.  T.  Long,  who  for  three  years 
was  intimately  acquainted  with  Dr.  Cronin  in  Chicago,  was  walking  down  Yonge  street 
shortly  after  11  o'clock  this  morning,  and  when  opposite  the  Arcade,  came  face  to  face 
with  the  missing  Irish  nationalist.  He  was  accompanied  by  a  man  of  shorter  stature. 

"  Hello,  Doc,  what  are  you  doing  here  ?"  was  Long's  greeting. 

To  this  the  doctor  answered  "  Hello,"  and  then  pausing  and  drawing  himself  up  in  an 
injured  manner,  continued :  "You  have  me  at  a  disadvantage,  sir.  What  do  you 
want?" 

"Why,  Cronin,  is  it  possible  that  you  don't  remember  me?" 

"I  do  not  know  you,  sir,  and  shall  have  you  handed  over  to  the  police  in  case  you 
bother  me  further." 

Having  thus  delivered  himself  the  doctorturned  the  corner  of  the  Arcade  and  quickly 
followed  the  retreating  footsteps  of  his  friend,  who  turned  down  Victoria  street,  and 
together  they  were  soon  lost  in  the  crowd.  While  on  the  way  to  police  headquarters  Long 
again  caught  sight  of  the  pair  walking  rapidly  down  Toronto  street.  Slipping  into  a 
doorway  he  waited  until  they  had  passed,  and  then  noticed  that  Cronin  had  adjusted  a 
pair  of  goggles,  but  otherwise  was  attired  precisely  the  same  as  when  seen  on  Yonge 
street.  Stepping  up  to  the  doctor,  Long  put  the  point-blank  question:  "Cronin,  what 
are  you  doing  in  Toronto  when  your  friends  in  Chicago  are  hunting  the  earth  for  you?" 

''  Now,  look  here,  Long,"  he  replied,  "  fo'r  God's  sake,  let  up  on  me.  I  have  already 
had  enough  notoriety  and  don't  want  to  be  bothered." 

"  Come  in  and  let  us  talk  the  matter  over,"  said  Long,  leading  the  pair  into  a  conveni- 
ent saloon.  Cronin  appeared  to  be  out  of  his  head.  He  talked  in  a  rambling  way  about 
Chicago  affairs  and  wound  up  by  denouncing  in  frenzied  terms  Alexander  Sullivan  and 
other  prominent  Irishmen.  His  friend  here  whispered  to  him  and  thereafter  he  refused 
to  talk. 

A  more  circumstantial  story  followed  the  next  day.  The 
public  began  to  turn  against  the  physician.  Woodruff's  story 
was  recalled,  and  it  was  hinted  that  Cronin  had  fled  the  city 
to  escape  the  consequences  of  a  criminal  operation.  In 
another  direction  it  was  charged  that  the  doctor  was  a  second 
Le  Caron.  One  of  his  enemies  gave  out  for  publication  a 
statement  that  agents  of  the  English  government  were  about 
to  put  another  American  informer  on  the  stand  in  the  Parnell 
inquiry.  Cronin  was  said  to  be  the  man.  His  Chicago 
friends  were  staggered  but  not  deceived  by  the  Toronto  dis- 
patches. Patrick  McGarry  was  sent  to  Canada.  He  enlisted 
the  services  of  the  Toronto  police.  Long's  circumstantial 
story  was  torn  to  shreds.  It  was  a  tissue  of  lies. 

285 


FINDING   OF  THE   BODY. 

May  14,  there  came  a  complaint  to  the  Lake  View  Board  of 
Public  Works  that  the  sewer  catch-basin  at  the  corner  of 
Evanston  avenue  and  North  Fifty-ninth  street  was  stopped  up, 
and  that  the  stench  arising  from  the  stagnant  water  was  a 
nuisance  in  the  neighborhood.  For  nearly  a  week  the  com- 
plaints continued  to  come  in,  and  finally,  on  May  22,  workmen 
were  dispatched  to  the  scene  to  clean  out  the  basin.  They 
found  the  ditch  that  was  supposed  to  drain  into  the  basin 
choked  with  sand,  and  spent  the  better  part  of  the  day  in 
clearing  it.  Just  at  dusk  the  job  was  completed,  and  before 
knocking  off  work,  the  foreman  knelt  on  the  iron  grating  that 
covered  the  basin  to  see  that  all  was  clear. 

"  There's  a  dog  in  here,"  he  said,  "  and  that's  what's  mak- 
ing this  stench." 

"  That's  strange,"  said  one  of  the  workmen  kneeling  beside 
him,  "  how  the  deuce  could  a  dog  get  in  there  ?  "  He  pressed 
his  face  close  to  the  bars  for  an  instant. 

"  My  God,"  he  cried,  "it's  a  corpse." 

The  heavy  plank  top  of  the  trap  was  wrenched  off  and 
there,  in  the  foul  slime  of  the  sewer,  floated  the  bruised  and 
bloated  body  of  Patrick  Henry  Cronin.  It  was  naked,  save 
for  a  towel  tightly  knotted  about  the  neck.  At  the  morgue, 
where  identification  by  friends  was  instantaneous,  the  physi- 
cians found  five  wounds,  any  one  of  which  would  have  proba- 
bly proved  fatal.  The  absence  of  wounds  on  the  hands 
showed  that  the  first  blow  was  delivered  unawares. 

In  the  catch-basin,  where  the  body  was  found,  a  human 
finger  was  picked  up.  In  his  guilty  haste,  one  of  the  mur- 
derers had  replaced  the  heavy  cover  with  a  crash,  crushing  off 
his  own  finger.  This  man  was  not  apprehended  at  the  time 
of  the  trial,  but  Cronin's  friends  know  who  he  was,  and  proba- 
bly could  convict  him  to-day  if  he  were  alive.  He  died  of 
delirium  tremens  not  many  months  after  the  murder.  With 

286 


the    discovery  of    Dr.  Cronin's  body,  the  county  authorities 
took  charge  of  the  case. 

Chief  of  Police  Hubbard  issued  the  following  order  to  his 
captains : 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  mutilated  body  of  Dr.  Cronin  has  been  found  in  a  catch- 
basin  in  the  town  of  Lake  View,  and  that  much  public  comment  will  be  aroused,  you  will 
instruct  your  officers  to  note  the  nature  of  any  such  comment  that  they  may  overhear, 
and  follow  up  all  clues  that  may  thus  be  obtained.  This  order  is  sent  out,  because  some 
person,  having  some  criminal  knowledge  of  how  Dr.  Cronin  came  to  his  death,  may  be 
indiscreet  enough  to  make  some  statement,  when  excited,  that  would  lead  to  the  solving 
of  the  mystery. 

The  above  order  is  re-printed  here  to  show  that  the  police 
had  awakened  to  the  magnitude  and  extent  of  the  conspiracy 
with  which  they  had  to  deal. 

Following  the  autopsy,  ordered  by  Coroner  Henry  L.  Hertz, 
Dr.  Cronin's  body  was  buried.  The  funeral  was  imposing. 
The  murdered  man's  brother,  John  T.  Cronin,  and  his  sister, 
Mrs.  John  Carroll,  were  the  only  relatives  present,  but  friends 
were  there  by  the  hundred.  The  day  before  the  funeral,  the 
body  lay  in  state  in  the  Cavalry  Armory  on  Michigan  avenue, 
guarded  by  Knights  of  St.  Patrick.  Twelve  thousand  passed 
before  the  catafalque,  between  the  hours  of  noon  and  mid- 
night. Sunday,  May  26,  at  10  o'clock,  ten  thousand  men, 
members  of  the  many  societies  with  which  Dr.  Cronin  was 
identified,  formed  in  procession,  and  followed  the  hearse 
from  the  Cavalry  Armory  to  the  Roman  Catholic  cathedral 
on  North  State  street,  where  the  requiem  mass  was  celebrated. 
The  burial  was  at  Calvary  cemetery. 

While  Dr.  Cronin's  body  lay  in  state  in  the  Cavalry  Armory, 
evidence  against  his  assassins  was  accumulating  rapidly. 
Spurred  by  the  rising  indignation  of  the  people,  the  officers  of 
the  law  redoubled  their  efforts  to  reach  the  murderers.  The 
day  after  the  discovery  in  the  Lake  View  sewer,  the  police 
located  the  slaughter-pen  where  Cronin  was  beaten  to  death. 
Patrick  O'Sullivan,  the  iceman,  resided  at  the  corner  of  Bos- 
worth  and  Roscoe  streets,  in  Lake  View.  On  Ashland 
avenue,  less  than  two  hundred  feet  from  O'Sullivan's  home, 


287 


stood  a  vacant  cottage,  one  story  and  basement,  with  entrances 
to  the  main  story  by  flights  of  wooden  steps  at  front  and  rear. 
Fifty  feet  behind  that  gloomy  cottage  was  a  smaller  building, 
occupied  by  Jonas  Carlson,  his  wife  and  son  John.  Mr.  Carl- 
son owned  both  buildings,  renting  the  Ashland  avenue  struc- 
ture when  he  could.  Only  the  Carlson  cottages  and  O'Sulli- 
van's  house  stood  in  the  space,  as  large  as  the  average  city 
square,  and  the  neighborhood  was  sparsely  built  up  in  every 
direction.  The  day  following  the  discovery  of  the  body, 
Captain  Schuettler,  of  the  city  police,  Captain  Wing,  of  the 
Lake  View  police,  and  States  Attorney  Longenecker  held  a 
consultation.  They  decided  to  send  for  O'Sullivan.  The  ice- 
man weakened  under  a  rigid  examination.  He  said  he 
believed  that  something  mysterious  had  been  going  on  in  the 
Carlson  cottage.  In  March,  he  said,  two  strangers  had  leased 
the  place  of  Carlson,  telling  him  they  were  going  to  work  in. 
O'Sullivan's  ice-house.  They  paid  a  month's  rent,  but  had 
not  occupied  the  building.  He  declared  that  he  did  not  know 
the  men,  and  had  made  no  agreement  to  give  them  employ- 
ment. He  reiterated  his  earlier  statements,  that  he  knew 
nothing  of  Cronin's  disappearance. 

Schuettler  and  Wing  ordered  that  O'Sullivan  be  detained 
while  they  drove  to  the  mysterious  cottage.  Even  before 
they  entered  the  building,  evidence  of  a  crime  was  noted. 
Blood-stains  were  to  be  seen  on  the  planks  that  spanned  the 
ditch  from  the  sidewalk  to  the  road.  Dark  stains  marked  the 
planks  of  the  sidewalk,  and  a  trail  of  blood  led  up  the  wooden 
steps  to  the  cottage  door.  Bursting  open  the  latter,  the  two 
officers  followed  the  gory  trail  into  the  front  room  of  the  little 
building.  Here  the  evidence  of  a  life-struggle  was  sicken- 
ingly  plentiful.  Blood-stains  were  everywhere,  and  from  the 
fact  that  they  were  not  as  heavy  as  those  outside  the  building, 
it  was  argued  that  the  blood  had  soaked  through  a  carpet  that 
had  since  been  taken  up.  In  the  room  were  a  bedstead, 
dressing  case,  washstand,  with  pitcher  and  bowl,  and  a  cheap 

288 


rocking  chair,  one  arm  of  which  was  broken  off  and  lay  on  the 
floor.  After  the  blood  was  shed,  a  man  in  bare  feet  had  made 
a  hurried  and  bungling  attempt  to  conceal  the  stains  by 
smearing  them  over  with  reddish  brown  paint.  In  the  base- 
ment of  the  cottage  were  found  the  paint  pot  and  brush, 
dropped  by  the  wretch  who  had  made  such  an  ineffectual 
attempt  to  cover  up  the  traces  of  the  bloody  struggle. 

Leaving  the  slaughter  pen,  the  two  policemen  sought  the 
Carlsons.  They  did  not  need  any  urging  to  tell  what  they 
knew.  March  20,  a  young  man  giving  his  name  as  Frank 
Williams,  had  called  and  rented  the  cottage,  paying  a  month's 
rent  in  advance.  He  said  his  two  brothers  and  a  sister,  who 
were  coming  from  Baltimore  in  a  few  days,  would  live  with 
him,  took  the  keys  and  departed.  Three  days  later  the  new 
tenant  moved  some  cheap  furniture  into  the  building.  Noth- 
ing was  seen  of  him  after  that,  until  he  called  April  20,  and 
paid  the  second  month's  rent.  In  explanation  of  his  failure  to 
occupy  the  cottage,  the  man  said  his  sister  was  sick.  Mon- 
day,— May  13,  Dr.  Cronin  had  then  been  missing  nine  days — 
a  stranger  called  at  the  Carlson's  home  and  tendered  the  third 
month's  rent,  although  it  would  not  be  due  for  a  week.  By 
this  time  the  Carlsons  began  to  suspect  something  was 
wrong,  and  they  refused  the  proffered  money  unless  Williams 
should  occupy  the  house.  May  18,  Carlson  received  a  note 
dated  Hammond,  Indiana,  signed  "  F.  W,"  which  read  as 
follows : 

My  sister  is  low  at  present  and  my  business  calls  me  out  of  town.  If  you  will  please 
put  the  furniture  in  your  cellar  for  a  few  days,  I  will  pay  you  for  your  trouble.  My  sis- 
ter told  me  to  paint  the  floor  for  her  so  that  it  v/ould  not  be  so  hard  to  clean.  I  am  sorry 
now  that  I  gave  the  front  room  one  coat. 

That  afternoon  Carlson  went  over  to  the  cottage  to  examine 
it.  The  condition,  as  found  by  the  police,  filled  the  ignorant 
man  with  alarm.  The  first  impulse  was  to  notify  the  officers, 
but  after  a  family  council  the  old  landlord  decided  to  do  noth- 
ing until  Frank  Williams  called  for  his  furniture.  Questioned 
by  Captain  Schuettler,  Carlson  remembered  that,  when  his 

ia 

289 


mysterious  tenant  first  secured  the  keys  from  him,  he  walked 
across  the  prairie  towards  O'Sullivan's  house.  The  iceman 
was  standing  by  his  buggy,  and  Carlson  heard  the  stranger 
say,  as  he  approached  him:  "Well,  the  cottage  is  rented." 
Later,  when  Carlson  complained  to  the  iceman  about  the  mys- 
terious actions  of  his  tenant,  his  neighbor  assured  him  that  the 
man  was  "  all  right." 

The  next  step  of  the  police  was  to  trace  the  furniture  found 
in  the  cottage.  It  bore  the  trade-mark  of  A.  H.  Revell  & 
Co.  Investigation  at  the  furniture  establishment  showed  that 
a  bill  of  goods,  corresponding  to  the  articles  found,  was  sold 
February  17  to  a  man  giving  the  name  of  J.  B.  Simonds,  and 
delivered  to  rooms  12  and  15,  117  Clark  street,  This  build- 
ing was  directly  opposite  the  Chicago  Opera  House  block, 
where  Dr.  Cronin  had  his  down-town  office.  It  was  devel- 
oped that  the  Clark  street  flat  was  deserted  March  23 — the 
day  Frank  Williams  moved  into  the  Carlson  cottage — and 
with  the  location  of  the  expressman,  who  hauled  the  goods  to 
Lake  View,  another  link  in  the  chain  of  evidence  was  forged. 
It  is  conjectured  that  the  assassins  originally  intended  to  lure 
Dr.  Cronin  into  the  Clark  street  flat  and  murder  him  there, 
but  that  the  idea  was  abandoned  because  of  the  hazard  in  dis- 
posing of  the  corpse. 

When  the  news  of  the  discovery  in  the  Carlson  cottage  was 
made  public,  William  Mertes,  a  Lake  View  milk  dealer,  came 
forward  with  a  story  that  confirmed  the  theory  that  here  Dr. 
Cronin  had  met  his  death.  Mertes  was  passing  down  Ash- 
land avenue  about  8 130  o'clock  on  the  night  of  May  4,  and, 
when  near  the  corner  of  Roscoe  street,  a  top  buggy,  drawn 
by  a  white  horse,  drew  up  in  front  of  the  cottage.  A  man, 
answering  the  description  of  the  murdered  physician  in  every 
particular,  jumped  from  the  buggy  and  hurried  up  the .  steps. 
He  was  expected,  for  Mertes  heard  a  bolt  fly  back  as  the  tall 
man  reached  the  door.  He  had  no  sooner  passed  inside  than 
the  milkman  was  astonished  to  see  the  man  who  remained  in 

290 


the  buggy  bring  the  whip  down  on  the  back  of  the 
white  horse  and  rattle  off  in  the  darkness.  As  he 
passed  down  the  street,  Mertes  heard  a  crash,  like  the 
fall  of  a  heavy  body,  in  the  dimly-lit  and  closely- 
shuttered  front  room  of  the  cottage,  followed  by  angry 
voices.  In  an  instant  all  was  still.  The  murder  had  been 
accomplished. 

THE    WHITE    HORSE    LOCATED. 

About  the  time  Milkman  Mertes  came  to  police  headquar- 
ters with  the  story  of  what  he  had  seen,  Patrick  Dinan,  a 
liveryman,  in  business  at  360  North  Clark  street,  called  upon 
Chief  of  Police  Hubbard,  with  what  proved  to  be  the  most 
important  single  bit  of  evidence  in  this  remarkable  case. 
Attached  to  the  East  Chicago  avenue  police  station,  then  com- 
manded by  Captain  Michael  J.  Schaack,  who  did  brilliant  work 
in  the  anarchist  case,  was  Detective  Daniel  Coughlin.  On 
the  morning  of  the  fateful  Saturday  that  Dr.  Cronin  disap- 
peared, Coughlin  is  reported  to  have  gone  to  Dinan's  stable, 
and  said:  "I  want  you  to  reserve  a  rig  for  a  friend  of  mine, 
who  will  call  for  it  to-night.  Say  nothing  to  any  one  about  it. 
I  will  be  responsible." 

Coughlin  often  hired  rigs  of  Dinan  when  on  detective  duty, 
and  the  request  of  secrecy  seemed  natural  to  the  liveryman. 
Between  7  and  8  o'clock  that  night  Coughlin's  friend  appeared. 
Dinan's  description  of  him  tallied  with  the  description  given 
by  Mrs.  Coughlin  and  Frank  Scanlan  of  the  man  who  drove 
Dr.  Cronin  away.  The  stranger  called  for  the  rig  that 
Coughlin  had  ordered.  He  was  given  a  white  horse  in  a  top 
buggy  without  side  curtains.  He  objected  to  the  color  of  the 
horse  and  the  absence  of  curtains,  but  Dinan  was  in  a  surly 
mood  and  would  make  no  change.  Finally  the  man  climbed 
into  the  rig  and  drove  north  on  Clark  street  in  the  direction  of 
the  Windsor  theatre  building.  About  9 130  o'clock  the  stranger 
drove  back  to  the  barn,  tossed  the  reins  to  a  hostler  and  hur- 

291 


riedly  disappeared.  The  horse  was  warm,  and  had  evidently 
been  driven  hard. 

The  following  Monday  the  newspapers,  in  telling  of  the  dis- 
appearance of  Cronin,  minutely  described  the  horse  and  buggy 
that  had  driven  him  away.  Without  thinking  there  was  any- 
thing wrong,  Dinan  concluded  to  report  to  Captain  Schaack. 
The  first  man  he  met  at  the  police  station  was  detective 
Coughlin. 

"Hello,"  said  Coughlin,  "Who  are  you  looking  for?" 

"Captain  Schaack,"  said  Dinan. 

"What  for?"  demanded  the  detective. 

"Well,"  replied  the  liveryman,  "there  are  so  many  inquiries 
made  about  the  white  horse  that  was  out  Saturday  night — the 
one  I  let  your  friend  have- — that  I  think  I  had  better  tell  him 
about  it." 

"Now,  look  here,  Dinan,"  said  Coughlin,  "there  is  no  use 
making  a  fuss  about  this  thing.  You  keep  quiet  about  it. 
Me  and  Cronin  have  not  been  good  friends,  and  if  you  go  to 
talking  you  may  get  me  into  trouble.  Everybody  knows  him 
and  me  were  enemies." 

Dinan  appeared  to  acquiesce  in  the  detective's  plan,  but 
later  in  the  day  he  called  at  Captain  Schaack's  house  and 
told  his  story.  That  officer  questioned  Coughlin  closely  in 
the  matter,  but  accepted  the  detective's  statement  that  he  had 
hired  the  rig  for  a  man  named  Smith,  from  Hancock,  Michi- 
gan, who  was  "  all  right." 

Dinan  finally  carried  his  story  to  Chief  of  Police  Hubbard. 
Hubbard  at  once  sent  for  Coughlin.  He  was  subjected  to  a 
rigid  cross-examination.  His  replies  were  evasive  and  unsat- 
isfactory. Frequently  he  contradicted  himself  and  at  times 
refused  to  answer  at  all.  When  he  left  the  room  he  was  under 
arrest.  Later,  at  the  trial,  Dinan  testified  to  the  facts  as  given 
above  in  his  statement  to  Chief  of  Police  Hubbard. 

In  the  meantime,  Patrick  O'Sullivan's  contract  with  Dr. 
Cronin  was  being  investigated.  The  fact  developed  that, 

292 


although  no  employe  of  the  iceman  had  been  injured  in  four 
years,  he  had  recently  agreed  to  pay  the  physician  $8.00  a 
month  regularly,  the  latter  to  respond  to  a  call  whenever  one 
of  O'Sullivan's  cards  should  be  presented  him.  To  disarm 
suspicion  the  contract  had  been  negotiated  through  Justice 
Mahoney,  of  Lake  View,  a  particular  friend  of  Cronin's.  The 
stranger  who  drove  the  doctor  away  with  Pat  Dinan's  white 
horse  had  presented  the  stipulated  card.  The  stranger  \vho 
rented  the  Carlson  cottage  hurried  to  apprise  O'Sullivan  of 
the  fact.  The  meshes  of  the  law  were  tightening  about  the 
iceman.  May  27  he  was  arrested  on  complaint  of  Dr. 
Cronin's  brother.  May  28,  after  hearing  the  evidence  thus 
far  gathered,  the  grand  jury  indicted  Daniel  Coughlin,  detec- 
tive; Patrick  O'Sullivan,  iceman;  and  Frank  J.  Black,  alias 
Woodruff,  the  horse-rthief,  for  conspiracy  to  commit  murder. 

Following  the  indictments  by  the  grand  jury  came  the 
coroner's  inquest.  The  jurors  visited  the  catch-basin  where 
the  body  of  Dr.  Cronin  was  found,  the  Carlson  cottage,  and 
examined  the  furniture  and  the  bloody  trunk.  Mrs.  Conklin, 
Frank  T.  Scanlan,  Patrick  Dinan,  Jonas  Carlson,  Justice 
Mahoney,  Milkman  Mertes  and  others  told  their  stories. 
Captain  Schaack's  testimony  before  the  jury  was  of  such 
nature  that  Chief  of  Police  Hubbard,  yielding  to  a  popular 
clamor,  suspended  him  from  the  force  on  which  he  had  served 
writh  such  distinction.  He  has  since,  however,  been  rein- 
stated and  now  occupies  a  position  of  honor  in  the  police 
department. 

One  of  the  main  obstacles  in  the  path  of  the  men  who  set 
for  themselves  the  task  of  hunting  down  the  murderers  of 
Cronin  was  the  police  force.  Every  station  in  the  city  had  its 
spies.  Every  move  of  the  detectives  who  were  honestly 
striving  to  unravel  the  mystery  was  promptly  communicated 
to  the  other  side.  On  one  occasion,  Patrick  Cooney — who  is 
known  to  have  been  one  of  the  men  in  the  cottage  at  the  time 
of  the  murder — was  located  in  a  New  Jersey  town.  Two 

293 


hours  after  an  officer  left  Chicago  to  arrest  him,  Cooney  had 
received  a  warning.  Dr.  Cronin's  friends  aver  that  the  man 
who  gave  the  warning  was  a  high  official  of  the  police  depart- 
ment, who  has  since  retired  on  a  pension. 

The  sensational  feature  of  the  coroner's  inquest  was  the 
attempt  to  show  that  Alexander  Sullivan  desired,  and  proba- 
bly directed  the  physician's  "  removal."  So  strong  was  the 
circumstantial  evidence  of  Thomas  F.  O'Connor,  Patrick 
McGarry,  J.  G.  Hagerty,  Luke  Dillon  and  others  that  the 
coroner's  jury  recommended  that  Sullivan  be  held  to  the 
grand  jury  along  with  Coughlin,  O'Sullivan  and  Black.  He 
was  arrested  on  the  night  of  June  12,  but  three  days  later 
Judge  Tuley  admitted  him  to  bail  in  the  sum  of  $20,000. 
November  8,  the  case  against  him  not  having  been  pushed, 
his  bondsmen  were  released  and  he  himself  declared  dis- 
charged. 

In  1886,  there  came  from  Ireland  to  the  United  States,  an 
athletic  young  man  named  Martin  Burke.  He  reached  Chi- 
cago in  1887,  and  soon  joined  the  Clan-na-Gaels.  He  was 
admitted  to  Camp  20,  of  which  John  F.  Beggs,  a  lawyer, 
Daniel  Coughlin  and  Michael  Whelan,  city  detectives,  were 
the  leading  lights.  Beggs,  through  Alexander  Sullivan,  got 
Burke  a  position  in  the  city  sewer  department.  He  was 
naturally  a  loafer  and  spent  much  of  his  time  in  bar-rooms, 
where  his  mouthings  soon  earned  for  him  the  reputation  of 
being  a  tool  of  the  triangle.  After  the  murder,  he  disap- 
peared. Burke  was  not  unknown  to  the  police  force,  and  it 
occurred  to  officer  John  Collins,  who  was  detailed  on  the 
Cronin  case,  that  he  might  know  something  of  it.  His  dis- 
appearance only  confirmed  the  theory.  Collins  finally 
procured  a  group  picture,  in  which  the  fugitive's  face  was 
shown.  The  Carlsons  unhesitatingly  picked  him  out  of  the 
group  as  Frank  Williams,  the  man  who  rented  the  cottage. 
The  expressman,  who  hauled  the  furniture  from  the  Clark 
street  flat  to  Lake  View  also  recognized  the  picture  as  being 

294 


that  of  the  man  who  employed  him.  Descriptions  of  Burke 
and  copies  of  the  photograph  were  scattered  over  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  June  16,  Chief  of  Police  McRae,  of 
Winnipeg,  Manitoba,  arrested  the  suspect  as  he  was  leaving 
the  city  to  take  ship  for  Liverpool.  After  a  legal  struggle 
that  lasted  six  weeks,  during  which  time  Burke  was  mys- 
teriously supplied  with  money  and  able  counsel,  a  warrant  of 
extradition  was  issued,  and  officer  Collins  brought  his  prisoner 
back  to  Chicago. 

While  this  was  going  on,  the  police  began  a  search  for 
Patrick  Cooney,  known  to  his  intimates  as  "  the  Fox." 
Cooney  came  from  the  west  of  Ireland  and  was  a  bricklayer 
by  trade.  He  answered  the  description  of  the  man  who 
bought  the  furniture  and  rented  the  Clark  street  flat.  For  a 
month  previous  to  the  murder  he  was  frequently  seen  with 
Coughlin  and  Burke,  and  he  had  been  heard  to  denounce  Dr. 
Cronin  as  a  British  spy.  The  week  after  the  murder  he  was 
seen  in  New  York,  and  twice  after  the  search  for  him  began 
he  was  located,  but  each  time  eluded  arrest. 

June  24  the  grand  jury  learned  from  reliable  witnesses  that 
there  was  an  inner  circle  in  Camp  20  of  the  Clan-na-Gael,  and 
that  a  trial  of  Dr.  Cronin  was  ordered  by  this  inner  circle  in 
February,  1889.  For  a  year  or  more  he  had  been  denounced 
in  this  camp  by  Coughlin,  O'Sullivan,  Burke,  Cooney  and 
others  as  a  British  spy.  A  case  was  finally  manufactured 
against  him,  and  the  trial  ordered.  John  F.  Beggs,  senior 
guardian  of  Camp  20,  selected  the  trial  committee.  The  com- 
mittee met  in  secret,  and  rendered  its  verdict  to  the  senior 
guardian.  Dr.  Cronin's  friends  say  that  on  May  4,  1889,  the 
verdict  was  executed. 

The  final  result  of  the  long  deliberations  of  the  grand  jury 
was  the  indictment  of  John  F.  Beggs,  Daniel  Coughlin,  Patrick 
O'Sullivan,  Patrick  Cooney,  Martin  Burke,  Frank  J.  Black 
and  John  Kunze.  Kunze  was  believed  to  be  the  man  who 
drove  the  white  horse.  He  had  done  some  "  stool-pigeon " 

295 


work  for  Coughlin,  and  thus  fell  under  suspicion.  At  the 
trial  he  was  first  sentenced  to  three  years  in  the  penitentiary, 
but  he  was  afterwards  acquitted.  By  an  agreement  of  the 
prosecution  Black  was  granted  a  separate  trial,  and,  finally,  as 
he  was  wanted  in  Kansas  for  horse  stealing,  and  the  police 
had  no  evidence  against  him  but  his  numerous  confessions,  he 
was  taken  to  Olathe,  Kansas,  where  he  was  convicted  and 
sentenced  to  two  years  in  the  penitentiary.  At  the  conclusion 
of  this  term,  he  was  taken  to  Lansing,  Kansas,  on  another 
charge  of  horse  stealing.  He  was  again  convicted,  and  this 
time  sentenced  to  five  years  in  prison,  where  he  died  of 
typhoid  fever,  October  10,  1892. 

The  Kansas  prison  officials  say  that  Black  talked  freely 
during  his  last  illness.  He  said  it  was  a  fact  that  he  drove 
the  wagon  containing  the  corpse  of  Dr.  Cronin.  The  Chicago 
police  evidently  blundered  in  letting  Black  go.  Had  he  been 
tried,  he  might  have  revealed  the  names  of  the  men  who  were 
with  him  the  night  of  May  4.  Certain  it  is  that  the  murder- 
ers have  not  all  been  brought  to  book. 

ON   TRIAL   AT   LAST. 

Friday,  August  30,  less  than  four  monHis  after  the  murder, 
the  trial  of  Beggs,  Coughlin,  O'Sullivan,  Burke  and  Kunze 
was  commenced  in  Judge  McConnelPs  court.  Able  lawyers 
represented  the  accused  men,  and  the  states  attorney  was 
supported  by  some  of  the  foremost  men  of  the  bar.  Nearly 
two  months  were  consumed  in  securing  a  jury.  When  the 
case  had  been  on  hearing  for  more  than  a  month,  a  sensational 
development,  indicative  of  the  powerful  and  sinister  influence 
at  work  in  behalf  of  the  prisoners,  was  made  public  by  the 
states  attorney.  Two  court  bailiffs  had  been  discovered  in  an 
attempt  to  bribe  the  jury.  One  man  had  been  offered  $5000 
if  he  would  get  on  the  jury  and  stand  out  for  an  acquittal.  A 
number  of  citizens  had  been  similarly  approached.  Happily, 
for  the  cause  of  justice,  the  bailiffs  approached  the  wrong 

296 


men,  and  the  plot  failed.  As  a  result  of  the  discovery  six 
men  were  indicted  by  the  grand  jury,  and  sent  to  jail  for  a 
term  of  years. 

To  rehearse,  or  even  summarize  the  evidence  heard  at  the 
trial  would  be  but  to  repeat  the  story,  as  here  set  down.  It 
was  on  Monday,  December  16,  that  the  jury  returned  a  ver- 
dict. Beggs  was  acquitted,  while  O'Sullivan,  Burke  and 
Coughlin  were  found  guilty  of  murder,  and  sentenced  to  the 
penitentiary  for  life.  January  20,  1893,  the  supreme  court 
granted  a  new  trial  on  a  technicality.  The  court  reviews  the 
evidence  presented  at  the  trial,  and  dwells  upon  the  fact  that 
it  is  purely  circumstantial.  The  theory  of  the  prosecution, 
that  a  conspiracy  was  hatched  by  Coughlin  and  others  to 
bring  about  the  murder  of  Dr.  Cronin,  is  recited,  together 
with  the  connection  which  it  sought  to  establish  between  the 
crime  and  the  Clan-na-Gael,  of  which  all  save  the  defendant 
Kunze  were  members.  The  supposed  purposes  of  that  organ- 
ization, the  declaration  that  Dr.  Cronin  was  a  British  spy  and 
the  investigation  set  on  foot  by  the  members  of  Camp  20,  are 
considered.  The  matter  of  the  competence  of  Jurors  Bon- 
tecou  and  Clark,  who  admitted,  on  examination,  that  from 
\vhat  they  had  read  in  the  newspapers,  they  believed  the 
prisoners  guilty,  was  taken  up  and  reviewed  at  great  length. 
Their  examination  is  repeated,  and  the  propriety  of  the  chal- 
lenge for  cause  made  in  each  case  by  defendant's  counsel  and 
refused  by  the  court,  is  taken  under  consideration.  Many 
authorities  are  quoted  to  show  what  is  and  what  is  not  a  com- 
petent juror.  The  conclusion  is  reached  that  Jurors  Bontecou 
and  Clark  were  disqualified  by  prejudice,  and  that,  therefore, 
the  defendants  did  not  receive  a  fair  trial.  The  decision 
declares  that  the  evidence  fails  to  show  that  the  Clan-na-Gael 
was  an  unlawful  or  criminal  organization,  or  that,  as  an 
organization,  it  had  anything  to  do  with  the  murder.  The 
court  forbears  to  express  an  opinion  as  to  the  other  questions 
presented  to  it,  but  reverses  the  judgment  of  the  lower  court 

297 


in  the  case,  and  remands  it  to  the  criminal  court  of  Cook 
county  for  a  new  trial.  Justices  Magruder  and  Scholfield 
dissented  from  the  opinion. 

Thus  Coughlin  is  now,  April,  1893,  in  the  county  jail, 
awaiting  a  new  trial.  Martin  Burke  and  Patrick  O'Sullivan 
died  in  prison.  The  fatalities  connected  with  the  Cronin  case 
have  been  singularly  numerous.  In  addition  to  the  death  of 
the  two  principals,  while  serving  life  sentences  in  Joliet  peni- 
tentiary, and  that  of  Black  in  the  Kansas  prison,  more  than  a 
score  of  suspects  and  witnesses  have  been  called  before  a 
higher  court.  Martin  Burke  died  December  9,  1892,  of  con- 
sumption. The  same  disease  carried  off  Patrick  O'Sullivan 
May  5,  1892.  John  F.  Beggs,  the  senior  guardian  of  Camp 
20,  died  April  5,  1892,  and  Patrick  Dinan,  the  owner  of  the 
white  horse,  died  March  28,  1892. 

Edward  Spellman,  the  wealthy  distiller,  of  Peoria,  whose 
evidence  on  the  stand  stamped  him  a  bitter  enemy  of  the  Doc- 
tor, died  in  December,  1891,  literally  losing  his  head  in  a 
frightful  fall  from  a  ladder.  He  was  a  prominent  Clan-na- 
Gael,  and  contributed  largely  to  the  defense  fund.  Thomas 
Desmond,  of  San  Francisco,  anorher  Clan-na-Gael,  who  came 
to  advise  and  assist  the  defense,  is  a  permanent  cripple,  sus- 
taining .a  compound  fracture  of  the  leg  on  Clark  street  by  a 
fall  one  night  while  on  his  way  to  a  secret  meeting.  Matthew 
Dannehy,  of  Camp  20,  kept  a  saloon  on  Chicago  avenue, 
which  the  Clan-na-Gaels  were  known  to  frequent.  He  was 
an  alibi  witness  for  the  defense.  He  never  prospered  after 
the  trial,  his  place  being  finally  closed  up,  and  he  died  soon 
after.  Michael  Gannon  was  a  bartender  in  Patrick  Dolan's 
saloon,  another  resort  of  the  order,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
known  a  good  deal,  his  testimony,  however,  being  unim- 
portant. During  the  trial  he  caught  a  severe  cold  one  night 
while  intoxicated.  It  quickly  developed  into  pneumonia,  and 
while  in  a  fit  of  coughing  he  choked  to  death  and  died  without 
the  services  of  a  priest.  Frank  Shea  was  another  pneumonia 

298 


victim.  It  is  supposed  his  part  in  the  trial  was  that  of  drilling 
alibi  witnesses.  A  horrible  death  was  that  of  Peter  McGee- 
han,  the  Philadelphian,  who  was  accosted  on  the  street  by  Dr. 
Cronin  about  a  week  before  the  murder,  and  charged  with 
being  in  the  plot  to  murder  him.  He  died  some  time  between 
the  coroner's  inquest  and  the  trial.  He  had  obtained  employ- 
ment at  a  South  Side  rolling  mill  and  fell  into  a  pit,  sustaining 
severe  injuries.  He  was  taken  to  the  County  Hospital  and  died 
shortly  after,  a  raving  maniac.  Like  Gannon,  he  is  said  to 
have  had  no  priest  to  console  him  in  his  dying  moments,  and 
there  has  always  been  a  mystery  about  his  burial  place.  The 
death  of  Robert  Gibbons,  who  was  an  alibi  witness  for  Burke, 
was  tragic  and  violent.  Two  years  ago,  while  in  the  Lake 
View  Exchange,  near  Hooley's  Theatre,  he  attacked  Captain 
Schuettler,  of  the  police  force,  who  had  been  active  in  running 
down  the  conspirators.  Schuettler  shot  and  fatally  wounded 
him,  and,  as  proven  in  the  coroner's  inquest,  was  fully  justi- 
fied in  doing  so. 

With  the  new  trial  of  Coughlin  still  pending,  it  is,  of  course, 
impossible  to  give  the  finale  of  the  great  tragedy. 


299 


"Chicago— The  Main   Exhibit." 

Under  the  above  heading,  Mr.  Julian  Ralph,  in  an  article 
appearing  in  the  February,  1892,  number  of  "  Harper's 
Monthly,"  gave,  in  epitome,  many  Chicago  characteristics, 
which,  while  hardly  the  proper  subject-matter  for  a  history  of 
the  city,  still  complete  and  supplement  that  history  and  enable 
the  stranger  to  form  a  more  correct  idea  of  the  distinguishing 
traits  of  Chicago  and  Chicagoans.  His  treatment,  however, 
was  so  generous,  his  praise  so  unstinted,  that  only  the  fact 
that  he  is  a  New  Yorker  permits  the  reproduction,  in  a  Chi- 
cago book,  of  the  following  extracts  from  his  article: 

"Chicago  will  be  the  main  exhibit  at  the  Columbian  Expo- 
sition of  1893.  No  matter  what  the  aggregation  of  wonders 
there,  the  city  itself  will  make  the  most  surprising  presenta- 
tion. Those  who  go  to  study  the  world's  progress  will  find  no 
other  result  of  human  force  so  wonderful,  extravagant,  or 
peculiar.  Those  who  go  clear-minded,  expecting  to  see  a 
great  city,  will  find  one  different  from  that  which  any  prece- 
dent has  led  them  to  look  for. 

"While  investigating  the  management  and  prospects  of  the 
Columbian  Exposition,  I  was  a  resident  of  Chicago  for  more 
than  a  fortnight.  A  born  New-Yorker,  the  energy,  roar,  and 
bustle  of  the  place  were  yet  sufficient  to  first  astonish  and  then 
to  fatigue  me.  I  was  led  to  examine  the  city,  and  to  cross- 
examine  some  of  its  leading  men.  I  came  away  compelled  to 
acknowledge  its  possession  of  certain  forceful  qualities  which 
I  never  saw  exhibited  in  the  same  degree  anywhere  else.  I 
got  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  its  growth  and  achievements, 
as  well  as  proof  that  it  must  continue  to  expand  in  population 
and  commercial  influence.  I  acquired  a  respect  for  Chicago 

300 


such  as  it  is  most  likely  that  any  American  who  makes  a  sim- 
ilar investigation  must  share  with  me. 

<:  The  city  has  been  thought  intolerant  of  criticism.  The 
amount  of  truth  there  is  in  this  is  found  in  its  supervoluminous 
civicism.  But  underlying  the  behavior  of  the  most  able  and 
enterprising  men  in  the  city  is  this  motto,  which  they  con- 
stantly quoted  to  me,  all  using  the  same  words:  'We  are  for 
Chicago  first,  last,  and  all  the  time.'  To  define  that  sentence 
is,  in  a  great  measure,  to  account  for  Chicago.  It  explains  the 
possession  of  a  milllion  inhabitants  by  a  city  that  practically 
dates  its  beginning  after  the  war  of  the  rebellion.  Its  adop- 
tion by  half  a  million  men  as  their  watchword  means  the  forc- 
ing of  trade  and  manufactures  and  wealth  ;  the  getting  of  the 
World's  Fair,  if  you  please.  In  order  to  comprehend  Chicago, 
it  is  best  never  to  lose  sight  of  the  motto  of  its  citizens. 

"I  have  spoken  of  the  roar  and  bustle  and  energy  of  Chicago. 
This  is  most  noticeable  in  the  business  part  of  the  town,  where  the 
greater  number  of  the  men  are  crowded  together.  *  *  * 
The  whole  business  of  life  is  carried  on  at  high  pressure,  and 
the  pithy  part  of  Chicago  is  like  three  hundred  acres  of  New 
York  Stock  Exchange  when  trading  is  active.  European  vis- 
itors have  written  that  there  are  no  such  crowds  anywhere  as 

«/ 

gather  on  Broadway,  and  this  is  true  most  of  the  time  ;  but 
there  is  one  hour  on  every  week-day  when  certain  streets  in 
Chicago  are  so  packed  with  people  as  to  make  Broadway  look 
desolate  and  solitudinous  by  comparison.  That  is  the  hour 
between  half  past  5  and  half  past  6  o'clock,  when  the  famous 
tall  buildings  of  the  city  vomit  their  inhabitants  upon  the 
pavements.  Photographs  of  the  principal  corners  and  cross- 
ings, taken  at  the  height  of  the  human  torrent,  suggest  the 
thought  that  the  camera  must  have  been  turned  on  some  little- 
known  painting  by  Dore.  Nobody  but  Dore  ever  conceived 
such  pictures.  To  those  who  are  in  the  crowds,  even  Chicago 
seems  small  and  cramped;  even  her  street-cars,  running  in 
breakneck  trains,  prove  far  too  few ;  even  her  streets  that 

302 


connect  horizon  with  horizon  seem  each  night  to  roar  at  the 
city  officials  for  further  annexation  in  the  morning. 

"We  shall  see  these  crowds  simply  and  satisfactorily 
accounted  for  presently ;  but  they  exhibit  only  one  phase  of  the 
high-pressure  existence  ;  they  form  only  one  feature  among  the 
many  that  distinguish  the  town.  In  the  tall  buildings  are  the 
most  modern  and  rapid  elevators,  machines  that  fly  up  through 
the  towers  like  glass  balls  from  a  trap  at  a  shooting  contest. 
The  slow-going  stranger,  who  is  conscious  of  having  been 
'kneaded'  along  the  street,  like  a  lump  of  of  dough  among  a 
million  bakers,  feels  himself  loaded  into  one  of  those  frail- 
looking  baskets  of  steel  netting,  and  the  next  instant  the  ele- 
vator-boy touches  the  trigger,  and  up  goes  the  whole  load  as 
a  feather  is  caught  up  by  a  gale.  These  elevators  are  too 
slow  for  Chicago,  and  the  managers  of  certain  tall  buildings 
now  arrange  them  so  that  some  run  'express'  to  the  seventh 
story  without  stopping,  while  what  may  be  called  accommo- 
dation cars  halt  at  the  lower  floors. 

"  The  cable  cars  of  Chicago  make  more  than  nine  miles  an 
hour  in  town,  and  more  than  thirteen  miles  an  hour  where  the 
population  is  less  dense.  These  street  cars  distribute  the  peo- 
ple grandly,  and  while  they  occasionally  run  over  a  stray 
citizen,  they  far  more  frequently  clear  their  way  by  lifting 
wagons  and  trucks  bodily  to  one  side  as  they  whirl  along.  It 
is  a  rapid  and  a  business-like  city.  The  speed  with  which  cat- 
tle are  killed  and  pigs  are  turned  into  slabs  of  salt  pork  has 
amazed  the  world,  but  it  is  only  the  ignorant  portion  thereof  that 
does  not  know  that  the  celerity  at  the  stock-yards  is  merely  an 
effort  of  the  butchers  to  keep  up  with  the  rest  of  the  town. 

"I  do  not  know  how  many  very  tall  buildings  Chicago  con- 
tains, but  they  must  number  nearly  two  dozen.  Some  of  them 
are  artistically  designed,  and  hide  their  height  in  well-balanced 
proportions.  A  few  are  mere  boxes,  punctured  with  window- 
holes,  and  stand  above  their  neighbors  like  great  hitching 

304 


posts.  The  best  of  them  are  very  elegantly  and  completely 
appointed,  and  the  communities  of  men  inside  them  might 
almost  live  their  lives  within  their  walls,  so  multifarious  are  the 
occupations  and  services  of  the  tenants.  The  best  New 
York  office  buildings  are  not  injured  by  comparison  with 
these  towering  structures,  except  that  they  are  not  so  tall  as 
the  Chicago  buildings,  but  there  is  not  in  New  York  any 
office  structure  that  can  be  compared  with  Chicago's  so-called 
Chamber  of  Commerce  office  building,  so  far  as  are  concerned 
the  advantages  of  light  and  air  and  openness  and  roominess 
which  its  tenants  enjoy.  *  *  *  With  their  floors  of 
defty-laid  mosaic  work,  their  walls  of  marble  and  onyx,  their 
balustrades  of  copper  worked  into  arabesquerie,  their  artistic 
lanterns,  elegant  electric  fixtures,  their  costly  and  luxurious 
public  rooms,  these  Chicago  office  buildings  force  an  exclama- 
tion of  praise,  however  unwillingly  it  comes. 

"  They  have  adopted  what  they  call  '  the  Chicago  method ' 
in  putting  up  these  steepling  hives.  This  plan  is  to  construct 
the  actual  edifice  of  steel  framework,  to  which  are  added  thin 
outer  walls  of  brick  or  stone  masonry,  and  the  necessary  par- 
titions of  fire-brick  and  plaster  laid  on  iron  lathing.  The 
buildings  are  therefore  like  enclosed  bird-cages,  and  it  is  said 
that,  like  bird-cages,  they  cannot  shake  or  tumble  down.  The 
exterior  walls  are  mere  envelopes.  They  are  so  treated  that 
the  buildings  look  like  heaps  of  masonry,  but  that  is  homage 
paid  to  custom  more  than  it  is  a  material  element  of  strength. 
The  Chicago  method  is  expeditious,  economical,  and  in  many 
ways  advantageous.  The  manner  in  which  the  great  weight 
of  houses  so  tall  as  to  include  between  sixteen  and  twenty- 
four  stories  is  distributed  upon  the  ground  beneath  them  is 
ingenious.  Wherever  one  of  the  principal  upright  pillars  is  to 
be  set  up,  the  builders  lay  a  pad  of  steel  and  cement  of  such 
extent  that  the  pads  for  all  the  pillars  cover  all  the  site. 
These  pads  are  slightly  pyramidal  in  shape,  and  are  made  by 
laying  alternate  courses  of  steel  beams  crosswise,  one  upon 

306 


another.  Each  pair  of  courses  of  steel  is  filled  in  and  solidified 
with  cement,  and  then  the  next  two  courses  are  added  and 
similarly  treated.  At  last  each  pad  is  eighteen  inches  thick, 
and  perhaps  eighteen  feet  square  ;  but  the  size  is  governed  by 
the  desire  to  distribute  the  weight  of  the  building  at  about  the 
average  of  a  ton  to  the  square  foot. 

"  This  peculiar  process  is  necessitated  by  the  character  of  the 
land  underneath  Chicago.  Speaking  widely,  the  rule  is  to 
find  from  seven  to  fourteen  feet  of  sand  super-imposed  upon  a 
layer  of  clay  between  ten  and  forty  feet  in  depth.  It  has  not 
paid  to  puncture  this  clay  with  piling.  The  piles  sink  into  a 
soft  and  yielding  substance,  and  the  clay  is  not  tenacious 
enough  to  hold  them.  Thus  the  Chicago  post-office  was 
built,  and  it  not  only  settles  continuously,  but  it  settles 
unevenly.  On  the  other  hand,  the  famous  Raokery  building, 
set  up  on  these  steel  and  cement  pads,  did  not  sink  quite  an 
inch,  though  the  architect's  calculation  was  that,  by  squeezing 
the  water  out  of  the  clay  underneath,  it  would  settle  seven 

inches. 

***** 

"  Chicago's  great  office  buildings  have  basements,  but  no 
cellars.  I  have  referred  to  the  number  of  these  stupendous 
structures.  Let  it  be  known  next  that  they  are  all  in  a  verv 
small  district,  that  narrow  area  which  composes  Chicago's 
office  region,  \vhich  lies  between  Lake  Michigan  and  all  the 
principal  railroad  districts,  and  at  the  edges  of  which  one- 
twenty-fifth  of  all  the  railroad  mileage  of  the  world  is  said  to 
terminate,  though  the  district  is  but  little  more  than  half  a 
mile  square,  or  300  acres  in  extent.  One  of  these  buildings — 
and  not  the  largest — has  a  population  of  4000  persons.  It 
was  visited  and  its  elevators  were  used  on  three  days,  when  a 
count  was  kept,  by  19,000,  18,000  and  20,000  persons.  Last 
October  there  were  7000  offices  in  the  tall  buildings  of  Chi- 
cago, and  7000  more  were  under  way  in  buildings  then  under- 
going construction.  The  reader  now  understands  whv  in  the 

O  O  *> 

308 


flasonic  Temple. 


heart  of  Chicago  every  work-day  evening  the  crowds  convey 
the  idea  that  our  Broadway  is  a  deserted  thoroughfare  as 
compared  with,  say,  the  corner  of  Clark  and  Jackson  streets. 

"  Four-story  and  five-story  houses  that  once  were  attractive 
are  no  longer  so,  because  their  owners  cannot  afford  the  con- 
veniences which  distinguish  the  greater  edifices,  wherein  light 
and  heat  are  often  provided  free,  fire-proof  safes  are  at  the 
service  of  every  tenant,  janitors  officer  a  host  of  servants,  and 
there  are  barber  shops,  restaurants,  cigar  and  news  stands, 
elevators,  and  a  half-dozen  other  conveniences  not  found  in 
smaller  houses.  One  of  the  foremost  business  men  in  the  city 
asserts  that  he  can  perceive  no  reason  why  the  entire  business 
heart  of  the  town — that  square  half  mile  of  which  I  have 
spoken — should  not  soon  be  all  builded  up  of  cloud-capped 
towers.  There  will  be  a  need  for  them,  he  says  and  the 
money  to  defray  the  cost  of  them  will  accompany  the  demand. 
The  only  trouble  he  foresees  will  be  in  the  solution  of  the 
problem,  what  to  do  with  the  people  who  will  then  crowd  the 
streets  as  never  streets  were  clogged  before. 

"  This  prophecy  relates  to  a  little  block  in  the  city,  but  the 
city  itself  contains  181^  square  miles.  *  *  *  The 
true  reason  for  the  enormous  extension  of  municipal  juris- 
diction is  quite  peculiar.  The  enlargement  was  urged  and 
accomplished  in  order  to  anticipate  the  growth  and  needs  of 
the  city.  It  was  a  consequence  of  extraordinary  foresight, 
which  recognized  the  necessity  for  a  uniform  system  of 
boulevards,  parks,  drainage  and  water  provision  when  the 
city  should  reach  limits  that  it  was  even  then  seen  must  soon 
bound  a  compact  aggregation  of  stores,  offices,  factories  and 
dwellings.  Chicago,  in  her  park  system,  makes  evident  her 
intentions.  Chicago  expects  to  become  the  largest  city  in 
America — a  city  which,  in  fifty  years,  shall  be  larger  than  the 
consolidated  cities  that  may  form  New  York  at  that  time. 
***** 

l<  Without   either   avowing  or   contesting  any  part  of  the 

310 


process  by  which  Chicago  men  account  for  their  city's  import- 
ance or  calculate  its  future,  let  me  repeat  a  digest  of  what 
several  influential  men  of  that  city  said  upon  the  subject. 
Chicago,  then,  is  the  center  of  a  circle  of  1000  miles  diameter. 
If  you  draw  a  line  northward  500  miles,  you  find  everywhere 
arable  land  and  timber.  The  same  is  true  with  respect  to  a 
line  drawn  500  miles  in  a  northwesterly  course.  For  650 
miles  westward  there  is  no  change  in  the  rich  and  alluring 
prospect,  and  so  all  around  the  circle,  except  where  Lake 
Michigan  interrupts  it,  the  same  conditions  are  found.  More- 
over, the  lake  itself  is  a  valuable  element  in  commerce.  The 
rays  or  spokes  in  all  these  directions  become  materialized  in 
the  form  of  the  tracks  of  thirty-five  railways  which  enter  the 
city.  Twenty-two  of  these  are  great  companies,  and  at  a 
short  distance  sub-radials,  made  by  other  railroads,  raise  the 
number  to  fifty  roads.  As  said  above,  in  Chicago  one-twenty- 
fifth  of  the  railway  mileage  of  the  world  terminates,  and  serves 
thirty  millions  of  persons,  who  find  Chicago  the  largest  city 
easily  accessible  to  them.  Thus  is  found  a  vast  population 
connected  easily  and  directly  with  a  common  center,  to  which 
everything  they  produce  can  be  brought,  and  from  which  all 
that  contributes  to  the  material  progress  and  comfort  of  man 
may  be  economically  distributed. 

"A  financier,  who  is  equally  well  known  and  respected  in 
New  York  and  Chicago,  put  the  case  somewhat  differently  as 
to  what  he  called  Chicago's  territory.  He  considered  it  as 
being  1000  miles  square,  and  spoke  of  it  as  '  the  land  west  of 
the  Alleghanies,  and  south  of  Mason  and  Dixon's  line.'  This 
region,  the  richest  agricultural  territory  in  the  world,  does  its 
financiering  in  Chicago.  The  rapid  increase  in  wealth  of 
both  the  city  and  the  tributary  region  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
every  year  both  produce  more,  and  have  more  to  sell  and  less 
to  buy.  Not  long  ago  the  rule  was  that  a  stream  of  goods 
ran  eastward  over  the  Alleghanies,  and  another  stream  of 
supplies  came  back,  so  that  the  west  had  little  gain  to  show. 

312 


But  during  the  past  five  years  this  back-setting  current  has 
been  a  stream  of  money,  returned  for  the  products  the  west 
has  distributed.  The  west  is  now  selling  to  the  east  and  to 
Europe  and  getting  money  in  return,  because  it  is  manufac- 
turing for  itself,  as  well  as  tilling  the  soil  and  mining  for  the 
rest  of  the  world.  It  therefore  earns  money  and  acquires 
a  profit,  instead  of  continuing  its  former  process  of  toiling 
merely  to  obtain  from  the  east  the  necessaries  of  life. 
***** 

"  When  we  understand  what  are  the  agricultural  resources 
of  the  region  for  which  Chicago  is  the  trading-post,  we 
perceive  how  certain  it  was  that  its  debt  would  be  paid, 
and  that  great  wealth  would  follow.  This  midland  country, 
of  which  Chicago  is  the  capital,  produces  two  thousand 
million  bushels  of  corn,  seven  hundred  million  bushels  of  oats, 
fifty  million  hogs,  twenty-eight  million  horses,  thirty  million 
sheep,  and  so  on,  but  in  no  single  instance  is  the  region  pro- 
ducing within  fifty  per  cent,  of  what  it  will  be  made  to  yield 
before  the  expiration  of  the  next  twenty  years.  Farming 
there  has  been  haphazard,  rude  and  wasteful;  but  as  it  begins 
to  pay  well,  the  methods  begin  to  improve.  Drainage  will  add 
new  lands,  and  better  methods  will  swell  the  crops,  so  that, 
for  instance,  where  sixty  bushels  of  corn  to  the  acre  are 
now  grown,  at  least  one  hundred  bushels  will  be  harvested. 
All  the  corn  lands  are  now  settled,  but  they  are  not  improved. 
They  will  yet  double  in  value.  It  is  different  with  wheat; 
with  that  the  maximum  production  will  soon  be  attained. 

"Such  is  the  wealth  that  Chicago  counts  up  as  tributary  to 
her.  By  the  railroads  that  dissect  this  opulent  region  she  is 
riveted  to  the  midland,  the  southern,  and  the  western  country 
between  the  Rockies  and  the  Alleghanies.  She  is  closely 
allied  to  the  south,  because  she  is  manufacturing  and  distribut- 
ing much  that  the  south  needs,  and  can  get  most  economically 
from  her.  Chicago  has  become  the  third  manufacturing  city 
in  the  Union,  and  she  is  drawing  manufactures  away  from  the 

313 


east  faster  than  most  persons  in  the  east  imagine.  To-day  it 
is  a  great  Troy  stove-making  establishment  that  has  moved  to 
Chicago;  the  week  before  it  was  a  Massachusetts  shoe  factory 
that  went  there.  Many  great  establishments  have  gone  there, 
but  more  must  follow,  because  Chicago  is  not  only  the  center 
of  the  midland  region,  in  respect  of  the  distribution  of  made- 
up  wares,  but  also  for  the  concentration  of  raw  materials. 
Chicago  must  lead  in  the  manufacture  of  all  goods  of  which 
wool,  leather  and  iron  are  the  bases.  The  revolution  that 
took  place  in  the  meat  trade  when  Chicago  took  the  lead  in 
that  industry  affected  the  whole  leather  and  hide  industry. 
Cattle  are  dropping  90,000  skins  a  week  in  Chicago,  and  the 
trade  is  confined  to  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Kansas  City,  Omaha, 
and  St.  Paul.  It  is  idle  to  suppose  that  those  skins  will  be  sent 
across  the  Alleghanies  to  be  turned  into  goods  and  sent  back 
again.  Wisconsin  has  become  the  great  tanning  state,  and  all 
over  the  district  close  around  Chicago  are  factories  and  factory 
towns,  where  hides  are  turned  into  leather  goods.  The  west 
still  gets  its  finer  goods  in  the  east,  but  it  is  making  the 
coarser  grades,  and  to  such  an  extent  as  to  give  a  touch  of 
New  England  color  to  the  towns  and  villages  around 
Chicago. 

"  Chicago  has  in  abundance  all  the  fuels  except  hard  coal. 
She  has  coal,  oil,  stones,  brick — everything  that  is  needed  for 
building  and  for  living.  Manufactures  gravitate  to  such  a 
place  for  economical  reasons.  The  population  of  the  North 
Atlantic  division,  including  Pennsylvania  and  Massachusetts, 
and  acknowledging  New  York  as  its  center,  is  17,401,000. 
The  population  of  the  northern  central  division,  trading  with 
Chicago,  is  22,362,279.  Every  one  has  seen  each  succeeding 
census  shift  the  center  of  population  farther  and  farther  west, 
but  not  every  one  is  habituated  to  putting  two  and  two 
together. 

"  Chicago  is  distinctly  American.  I  know  that  the  Chica- 
goans  boast  that  theirs  is  the  most  mixed  population  in 

3H 


the  country,  but  the  makers  and  movers  of  Chicago  are 
Americans.  *  *  *  The  dominating  class  is  of  that 
pure  and  broad  American  type  which  is  not  controlled  by 
New  England  or  any  other  tenets,  but  is  somewhat  loosely 
made  up  of  the  overflow  of  the  New  England,  the  Middle  and 
the  Southern  states. 

"  But  the  visitor's  heart  warms  to  the  town  when  he  sees  its 
parks  and  its  homes.  In  them  is  ample  assurance  that  not 
every  breath  is  'business,'  and  not  every  thought  commer- 
cial. Once  out  of  the  thicket  of  the  business  and  semi-business 
district,  the  dwellings  of  the  people  reach  mile  upon  mile  away 
along  pleasant  boulevards  and  avenues,  or  facing  noble  parks 
and  parkways,  or  in  a  succession  of  villages  green  and  gay 
with  foliage  and  flowers.  They  are  not  cliff  dwellings,  like 
our  flats  and  tenements;  there  are  no  brown-stone  canons,  like 
our  up-town  streets;  there  are  only  occasional  hesitating  hints 
there  of  those  Philadelphian  and  Baltimorean  mills  that  grind 
out  dwellings  all  alike,  as  nature  makes  pease  and  man  makes 
pins.  There  are  more  miles  of  detached  villas  in  Chicago 
than  a  stranger  can  easily  account  for.  As  they  are  not  only 
found  on  Prairie  avenue  and  the  boulevards,  but  in  the  popu- 
lous wards  and  semi-suburbs,  where  the  middle  folk  are  con- 
gregated, it  is  evident  that  the  prosperous  moiety  of  the 
population  enjoys  living  better  (or  better  living)  than  the  same 
fraction  in  the  Atlantic  cities. 

***** 

"  A  peculiarity  of  the  buildings  of  Chicago  is  in  the  great 
variety  of  building-stones  that  are  employed  in  their  construc- 
tion. Where  we  would  build  two  blocks  of  brown-stone,  I 
have  counted  thirteen  varieties  of  beautiful  and  different 
building  material.  Moreover,  the  contrasts  in  architect- 
ural design  evidence  among  Chicago  house  owners  a  com- 
plete sway  of  individual  taste.  It  is  said,  and  I 
have  no  reason  to  doubt  it,  that  the  clerks  and  small 
tradesmen,  who  live  in  thousands  of  these  pretty  little 

316 


boxes,  are  the  owners  of  their  homes;  also  that  the  tene- 
ments of  the  rich  display  evidence  of  a  tasteful  and  costly 
garnering  of  the  globe  for  articles  of  luxury  and  virtu.  A 
sneering  critic,  who  wounded  Chicago  deeply,  intimated  that 
theirs  must  be  a  primitive  society  where  the  rich  sit  on  their 
door-steps  of  an  evening.  That  really  is  a  habit  there,  and  in 
the  finer  districts  of  all  the  western  cities.  To  enjoy  them- 
selves the  more  completely,  the  people  bring  out  rugs  and 
carpets,  always  of  gay  colors,  and  fling  them  on  the  steps 
that  the  ladies'  dresses  may  not  be  soiled.  As  these  step 
clothings  are  as  bright  as  the  maiden's  eyes  and  as  gay  as 
their  cheeks,  the  effect  may  be  imagined.  For  my  part,  I 
think  it  argues  well  for  any  society  that  indulges  in  the  trick, 
and  proves  existence  in  such  a  city  to  be  more  human  and 
hearty,  and  far  less  artificial  than  where  there  is  too  much 
false  pride  to  permit  of  it. 

***** 
"  It  is  in  Chicago  that  we  find  a  great  number  of  what  are 
called  boulevarded  streets,  at  the  intersections  of  which  are 
signs  bearing  such  admonitions  as  these:  ' For  pleasure  driv- 
ing. No  traffic  wagons  allowed;'  or,  'Traffic  teams  are  not 
allowed  on  this  boulevard.'  Any  street  in  the  residence  parts 
of  the  city  may  be  boulevarded  and  turned  over  to  the  care  of 
the  park  commissioners  of  the  district,  provided  that  it  does 
not  lie  next  to  any  other  such  street,  and  provided  that  a 
certain  proportion  of  the  property-holders  along  it  are  minded 
to  follow  a  simple  formula  to  procure  the  improvement. 
Improved  road-beds  are  given  to  such  streets,  and  they  not 
only  become  neat  and  pretty,  but  enhance  the  value  of  all 
neighboring  land.  One  boulevard  in  Chicago  penetrates  to 
the  very  heart  of  its  bustling  business  district.  By  means  of 
it  men  and  women  may  drive  from  the  southern  suburbs  or 
parks  to  the  center  of  trade,  perhaps  to  their  office  doors, 
under  the  most  pleasant  conditions.  By  means  of  the  lesser 
beautified  avenues  among  the  dwellings,  men  and  women  may 


sleep  of  nights  and  hide  from  the  worst  of  the  city's  tumult 
among  green  lawns  and  flower  beds. 

"  Chicago's  park  system  is  so  truly  her  crown,  or  its  diadem, 
that  its  fame  may  lead  to  the  thought  that  enough  has  been 
said  about  it.  That  is  not  the  case,  however,  for  the  parks 
change  and  improve  so  constantly  that  the  average  Chicagoan 
finds  some  of  them  outgrowing  his  knowledge,  unless  he  goes 
to  them  as  he  ought  to  go  to  his  prayers.  It  is  not  in  extent 
that  the  city's  parks  are  extraordinary,  for,  all  told,  they  com- 
prise less  than  two  thousand  acres.  It  is  the  energy  that  has 
given  rise  to  them,  and  the  taste  and  enthusiasm  which  have 
been  expended  upon  them,  that  cause  our  wonder.  Sand  and 
swamp  were  at  the  bottom  of  them,  and  if  their  surfaces  now 
roll  in  gentle  undulations,  it  is  because  the  earth  that  was 
dug  out  for  the  making  of  ponds  has  been  subsequently 
applied  to  the  forming  ol  hills  and  knolls.  The  people  go  to 
some  of  them  upon  the  boulevards  of  which  I  have  spoken, 
beneath  trees  and  beside  lawns  and  gorgeous  flower  beds, 
having  their  senses  sharpened  in  anticipation  of  the  pleasure- 
grounds  beyond,  as  the  heralds  in  some  old  plays  prepare  us 
for  the  action  that  is  to  follow.  Once  the  parks  are  reached, 
they  are  found  to  be  literally  for  the  use  of  the  people  who 
own  them.  I  have  a  fancy  that  a  people  who  are  so  largely 
American  would  not  suffer  them  to  be  otherwise.  There  are 
no  signs  warning  the  public  off  the  grass,  or  announcing  that 
they  'may  look,  but  mustn't  touch,'  whatever  there  is  to  see. 
The  people  swarm  all  over  the  grass,  and  yet  it  continues 
beautiful  day  after  day  and  year  after  year.  The  floral  dis- 
plays seem  unharmed;  at  any  rate,  we  have  none  to  compare 
with  them  in  any  Atlantic  coast  parks.  The  people  even  pic- 
nic on  the  sward,  and  those  who  can  appreciate  such  license 
find,  ready  at  hand,  baskets  in  which  to  hide  the  litter  which 
follows.  And,  O  ye  who  manage  other  parks  we  wot  of, 
know  that  these  Chicago  play-grounds  seem  as  free  from 
harm  and  eyesore  as  any  in  the  land. 

320 


21 


"The  best  parks  face  the  great  lake,  and  get  wondrous 
charms  of  dignity  and  beauty  from  it.  At  the  North  Side  the 
Lincoln  Park  commissioners,  at  great  expense,  are  building 
out  into  the  lake,  making  a  handsome  paved  beach,  sea-wall, 
esplanade,  and  drive  to  enclose  a  long,  broad  body  of  the 
lake  water.  Although  the  great  blue  lake  is  at  the  city's  edge, 
there  is  little  or  no  sailing  or  pleasure-boating  upon  it.  It  is 
too  rude  and  treacherous.  Therefore  these  commissioners  of 
the  Lincoln  Park  are  enclosing,  behind  their  new-made  land, 
a  water-course  for  sailing  and  rowing,  for  racing,  and  for 
more  indolent  aquatic  sport.  The  Lake  Shore  Drive,  when 
completed,  will  be  three  miles  in  length,  and  will  connect  with 
yet  another  notable  road  to  Fort  Sheridan,  twenty-five  miles 
in  length.  All  these  beauties  form  part  of  the  main  exhibit  at 
the  Columbian  Exposition.  Realizing  this,  the  municipality 
has  not  only  voted  five  millions  of  dollars  to  the  Exposition,  but 
has  set  apart  $3,500,000  for  beautifying  and  improving  the 
city  in  readiness  for  the  Exposition  and  its  visitors,  even  as  a 
bride  bedecketh  herself  for  her  husband.  That  is  well ;  but 
it  is  hot  her  beauty  that  will  most  interest  the  visitors  to 
Chicago.  *  *  *  * 

"Whatever  these  visitors  have  heard  or  thought  of  Chicago, 
they  will  find  it  not  only  an  impressive  but  a  substantial  city. 
It  will  speak  to  every  understanding  of  the  speed  with 
which  it  is  hastening  to  a  place  among  the  world's  capitals. 
Those  strangers  who  travel  farther  in  our  west  may  find  other 
towns  that  have  builded  too  much  upon  the  false  prospects  of 
districts  where  the  crops  have  proved  uncertain.  They  may 
see  still  other  showy  cities,  where  the  main  activity  is  in  the 
direction  of  "swapping"  real  estate.  It  is  a  peculiar  industry, 
accompanied  by  much  bustle  and  lying.  But  they  will  not 
find  in  Chicago  anything  that  will  disturb  its  tendency  to 
impress  them  with  a  solidity  and  a  degree  of  enterprise  and 
prosperity  that  are  only  excelled  by  the  almost  idolatrous 
faith  of  the  people  in  their  community.  The  city's  broad  and 

322 


regular  thoroughfares  will  astonish  many  of  us  who  have 
imbibed  the  theory  that  streets  are  first  mapped  out  by  cows; 
its  alley  system  between  streets  will  win  the  admiration  of  those 
who  live  where  alleys  are  unknown ;  its  many  little  homes  will 
speak  volumes  for  the  responsibility  and  self-respect  of  a  great 
body  of  its  citizens. 

"The  discovery  that  the  city's  harbor  is  made  up  of  forty- 
one  miles  of  the  banks  of  an  internal  river  will  lead  to  the  sat- 
isfactory knowledge  that  it  has  preserved  its  beautiful  front 
upon  Lake  Michigan  as  an  ornament.  This  has  been  bor- 
dered by  park  and  parkways  in  pursuance  of  a  plan  that  is 
interrupted  to  an  important  extent  only  where  a  pioneer  rail- 
way came  without  the  foreknowledge  that  it  would  eventu- 
ally develop  into  a  nuisance  and  an  eyesore.  Its  splendid 
hotels,  theatres,  schools,  churches,  galleries  and  public  works 
and  ornaments  will  commend  the  city  to  many  who  will  not 
study  its  commercial  side.  In  short,  it  will  be  found  that  those 
who  visit  the  exposition  will  not  afterward  reflect  upon  its 
assembled  proofs  of  the  triumphs  of  man  and  of  civilization 
without  recalling  Chicago's  contribution  to  the  sum." 


323 


Libraries,   Educational  and    Charitable 
Institutions. 

It  has  been  too  generally  the  custom  to  regard  Chicago 
exclusively  in  the  light  of  its  industrial  activity,  to  note  its 
commerce  and  manufactures  without  considering  its  humani- 
tarian endeavors.  Yet  the  latter  by  no  means  fall  short  of  the 
city's  achievements  in  purely  material  lines.  When  money 
getting  is  mentioned  as  a  Chicago  characteristic,  liberality 
should  be  given  as  an  equally  prominent  one.  Aside  from 
the  great  public  charitable  institutions  of  the  city  and  county, 
there  are  almost  countless  hospitals,  homes,  asylums  and  mis- 
sions supported  wholly  by  private  charity.  To  individual 
munificence  also,  are  due  Chicago's  higher  educational  insti- 
tutions, the  great  libraries,  the  Art  Institute,  and  especially  the 
new  University  of  Chicago.  In  no  city  of  the  world  are 
greater  public  spirit  and  private  beneficence  displayed  than  in 
restless  Chicago.  The  number  of  these  institutions  makes  it 
advisable  to  mention  only  the  most  prominent.  First  of  all, 
from  an  educational  standpoint,  is  the  great  University  of  Chi- 
cago, which  received  its  first  students  in  October,  1892.  Its 
campus  and  buildings  are  on  Midway  Plaisance,  its  equipment 
complete  and  its  endowment  ample — $3,600,000  having  been 
contributed  to  it  by  John  D.  Rockefeller  alone. 

All  of  the  prominent  colleges  of  America  contributed 
to  its  faculty,  and  several  of  its  professors  came  from 
Europe — among  them  being  the  distinguished  German  his- 
torian, Von  Hoist,  of  Freiburg.  The  dormitory  system  is 
used  at  the  university,  and  the  dormitories,  already  erected, 
will  accommodate  2,000  students.  The  college  fees  and  the 
actual  living  expenses  of  the  students  are  remarkably  small  for 
so  large  an  institution,  and,  in  addition,  scholarships  are  pro- 


vided  for  deserving  students.  The  university  is  co-edu- 
cational, and  a  part  of  its  faculty  is  engaged  exclusively  in  the 
work  of  "  university  extension."  The  Northwestern  Univer- 
sity, with  its  college  of  liberal  arts  and  theological  and  pre- 
paratory departments  located  in  Evanston,  a  suburb  of  Chi- 
cago, has  its  professional  schools  in  the  heart  of  the  city.  The 
same  is  true  also  of  Lake  Forest  University. 

The  Newberry  Library,  on  the  North  Side,  facing  Wash- 
ington Square,  came  to  the  city  as  the  result  of  a  clause  in  the 
will  of  Walter  L.  Newberry,  which  provided  that  if  his  two 
daughters  should  die  without  legal  issue,  then  on  the  death  of 
his  wife  his  executors  should  divide  one-half  of  his  fortune 
among  his  brothers  and  sisters  and  their  children,  and  should 
devote  the  other  half  to  the  foundation  and  support 
of  a  free  public  library.  Both  the  Misses  Newberry  died 
without  marrying,  and  on  the  settlement  of  the  estate  in  1886, 
$2,149,201  was  turned  over  to  the  proper  trustees  for  library 
purposes.  This  sum  has  increased  to  over  three  million  dol- 
lars in  the  hands  of  the  trustees,  and  the  library  building, 
erected  at  a  cost  of  half  a  million  dollars,  is  ready  for  occu- 
pancy. The  building,  which  is  300  feet  long  and  60  feet  deep, 
is  a  model  of  convenience,  beauty  and  safety,  and  so  designed 
that  other  buildings  can  be  added  to  it  from  time  to  time  as 
they  may  be  found  necessary.  Dr.  Wm.  F.  Poole,  formerly 
of  the  Chicago  Public  Library,  was  made  librarian  of  the  new 
institution,  and,  with  his  assistant,  Dr.  Carl  Pietsch,  immediately 
began  the  purchase  of  books.  An  early  and  very  valuable 
acquisition  was  that  of  the  celebrated  Probasco  Library,  in  Cin- 
cinnati. The  library  now  contains  107,157  bound  volumes  and 
39,501  pamphlets.  The  great  difference  between  the  Newberry 
and  the  Chicago  Public  Library  is  that  the  former  will  contain 
fewer  works  of  fiction  and  that  none  of  its  volumes  can  be 
taken  from  the  library  building.  There  will  be,  of  course, 
many  books  written  purely  for  amusement,  but  the  specialty 
will  be  reference  works  for  students  and  experts,  rare  vol- 

325 


umes  and  costly  editions.  A  recent  accession  to  the 
library  was  the  Robert  Clarke  collection  on  fish,  fish- 
culture  and  fish-sport.  This  collection  numbered  1453 
bound  volumes  and  429  pamphlets.  Many  of  the  vol- 
umes are  exceedingly  rare  and  the  bindings  rich  and 
elegant.  Some  of  the  accessions  during  the  year  1892  are 
those  on  antiquities  and  folk-lore,  1063  volumes;  on  music, 
7776  volumes;  on  language,  11,527  volumes;  on  medicine. 
3081  volumes,  and  324  dictionaries  of  various  languages. 
Among  the  most  valuable  of  the  smaller  accessions  to  the 
library  are  the  "Basilica  di  San  Marco,"  "Biblia  Latina 
Argentorati,"  a  four  volume  edition  of  the  Scriptures  published 
in  1480,  and  the  first  printed  bible  to  have  a  commentary;  a 
complete  set  of  the  "Astronomische  Nachrichten,"  135  vol- 
umes, running  from  1823  to  1892,  and  two  remarkably  sumptu- 
ous and  artistic  volumes  on  the  life  of  Christopher  Columbus, 
printed  in  Barcelona  in  1892.  In  the  public  reading  room  338 
of  the  best  periodicals  of  the  world  can  be  found. 

A  third  public  library  for  Chicago  was  provided  for  by  the 
will  of  the  late  John  Crerar,  who,  after  making  bequests  to 
the  extent  of  $500,000  to  various  public  and  private  charities, 
gave  the  remainder  of  his  estate  for  "  the  erection,  creation, 
maintenance  and  endowment  of  a  free  public  library,  to  be 
called  'The  John  Crerar  Library,'  and  to  be  located  in  the 
city  of  Chicago,  the  preference  being  given  to  the  South 
Division  of  the  city."  This  gift,  now  under  the  trustee- 
ship of  Huntington  W.  Jackson,  will  probably  amount  to 
$2,000,000.  The  Chicago  Law  Library,  the  establishment  of 
which  was  due  chiefly  to  the  efforts  of  Julius  Rosenthal,  is  the 
most  valuable  technical  library  in  the  city,  and  consists  of 
20,000  volumes. 

The  Chicago  Historical  Society,  another  of  the  humanizing 
institutions  of  the  city,  was  founded  in  1856,  and  at  the  time 
of  the  fire  had  a  valuable  collection  of  20,000  volumes,  numer- 
ous manuscripts,  complete  files  of  the  local  newspapers,  the 

326 


original  draft  of  the  emancipation  proclamation,  and  other 
treasures  of  Chicago's  early  days.  All  were  destroyed,  how- 
ever, by  the  great  fire,  and  a  subsequent  collection  was 
destroyed  by  the  second  Chicago  fire,  in  1874.  The  society's 
endowment,  however,  was  not  lost,  and  under  Judge  John 
Moses,  its  curator,  a  new  collection  has  been  made,  and  the 
society  is.  in  flourishing  condition.  It  will  soon  occupy  the 
splendid  building  now  (April,  1893)  being  erected  for  it. 

A  typical  Chicago  institution  is  the  Armour  Mission.  It 
was  established  in  November,  1886,  and  owes  its  origin  to  a 
provision  in  the  will  of  Joseph  F.  Armour,  bequeathing 
$100,000  for  the  founding  of  a  free  non-sectarian  institution, 
which  would  provide  the  poor  with  such  advantages  as  are  to 
be  derived  from  a  day  nursery,  kindergarten,  reading  room, 
dispensary,  bath-rooms,  manual  training  school,  Sunday 
school  and  lecture  course.  The  work  of  carrying  out  his 
design  Mr.  Armour  left  to  his  brother,  Philip,  and  that  gentle- 
man has  added  to  the  original  endowment  more  than  a  million 
dollars  from  his  own  fortune.  The  mission  building,  on 
Thirty-third  street  and  Armour  avenue,  is  a  handsome  struc- 
ture, and  besides  a  creche,  kindergarten  room,  library,  kitchen, 
dispensary,  bath-rooms  and  administration  rooms,  contains  a 
main  audience  hall  for  social  and  literary  purposes,  that  will 
hold  an  audience  of  1300  persons.  The  Armour  Institute, 
established  in  connection  with  the  mission,  was  founded  for 
the  purpose  of  giving  to  young  men  and  women  the  oppor- 
tunity of  securing  a  liberal  education.  It  is  not  intended  for 
the  poor  or  the  rich,  as  sections  of  society,  but  for  all  who 
are  seeking  practical  education.  Its  aim  is  broadly  philan- 
thropic. The  founder  has  conditioned  his  benefactions  in 
such  a  way  as  to  emphasize  both  their  value  and  the  student's 
self-respect.  Armour  Institute  is  not  a  free  school,  but  its 
charges  for  instruction  are  merely  nominal. 

The  Chicago  Athenaeum,  founded  in  1871,  is  another  insti- 
tution devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  body  and  mind.  It  has  a 

328 


large  library,  pleasant  reading-rooms,  a  well-equipped  gym- 
nasium and  eight  class  rooms,  where  over  a  thousand  pupils 
are  taught  daily.  It  is  not  a  charity  institution,  but  each  bene- 
ficiary pays  at  least  some  part  of  the  cost  of  the  instruction 
and  privileges  given  him.  The  Athenaeum  building  on  Van 
Buren  street,  near  Wabash  avenue,  is  among  the  fine  office 
buildings  of  Chicago. 

Like  every  great  city,  Chicago  has  numerous  hospitals, 
homes  and  charitable  societies,  dependent  either  on  private 
munificence  or  supported  by  one  or  more  of  the  many  churches 
of  the  city  ;  two  only  of  these  institutions  are  so  peculiar  to 
Chicago  as  to  merit  special  mention  :  the  Lincoln  Park  Sani- 
tarium and  the  Flower  Mission.  The  Lincoln  Park  Sani- 
tarium is  the  outgrowth  of  a  project  originating  in  1883,  with 
Mrs  Eleanore  Shoneman.  It  is  open  only  in  summer,  and  is 
intended  for  infants  and  little  children  who  are  suffering  from 
the  numerous  ailments  incident  to  babyhood  in  warm  weather. 
The  sanitarium  is  in  Lincoln  Park,  directly  at  the  edge  of 
Lake  Michigan.  Little  ones  are  taken  to  it  during  the  sum- 
mer, and,  aside  from  the  fresh  air  and  cool  breezes  from  the 
lake,  are  given,  gratis,  the  best  medical  attendance  and  proper 
nursing  and  food.  The  sanitarium  is  supported  by  individual 
contributions,  collected  and  disbursed  by  a  local  paper.  The 
Flower  Mission  has  branches  in  every  quarter  of  the  city.  Its 
members,  women  and  girls,  who  give  their  services,  collect 
flowers  from  the  city  parks  and  from  country  donors,  and  dis- 
tribute them  in  the  hospitals  and  among  the  poor  and  unfor- 
tunate of  the  city  in  general.  Of  all  Chicago's  charities,  none 
is  more  gracious  and  kindly  than  the  Flower  Mission. 


330 


The  Chicago  Press. 

The  newspapers  of  Chicago,  typical  as  they  are  of  its  push, 
energy  and  liberality,  have  been  powerful  factors  in  the  devel- 
opment of  the  city.  Their  fearless  criticisms  and  able  and 
intelligent  handling  of  the  news,  places  them  in  the  front  rank 
of  the  journals  of  America,  which  means  of  the  world.  With- 
out resorting  to  catch-penny  methods,  sensationalism  or 
malignity,  the  typical  Chicago  paper  of  to-day  is  progressive 
and  enterprising,  and  is  unrivaled  as  a  news  collector.  The 
influence  of  the  Chicago  press  is  not  merely  local,  but  extends 
over  the  whole  northwest.  As  regards  general  appearance, 
typographical  excellence  and  quality  and  quantity  of  news- 
paper illustrations,  the  Chicago  press,  as  a  class,  is  without 
equal.  The  average  weekly  cost  of  a  great  Chicago  daily  is 
$20,000,  or  $1,000,000  a  year,  and  the  daily  telegraph  tolls 
average  $500. 

The  oldest  of  the  morning  papers  is  the  Chicago  Tribune, 
and  its  editor  and  proprietor,  Joseph  Medill,  is  the  Nestor 
of  Chicago  journalism  and  the  most  reputably  successful 
newspaper  man  on  record.  Mr.  Medill  belongs  to  the  old 
school  of  journalists,  like  Thurlow  Weed,  Horace  Greeley, 
Wilbur  F.  Storey  and  Charles  A.  Dana.  He  dominates  his 
paper.  His  personal  principles,  not  his  counting-room, 
determine  its  policy.  Thus,  at  the  time  the  order  of  know- 
nothings  was  most  powerful  and  influential,  Mr.  Medill  vio- 
lently and  tirelessly  opposed  it.  He  pointed  out  the  evils  that 
would  arise  from  checking  immigration  and  to  fight  the  new 
order  on  its  own  ground,  established  the  "know-something 
order."  This,  in  its  time,  did  great  service  in  protecting  and 
encouraging  immigration,  and  thus  materially  assisted  in  the 
development  of  the  west  in  general  and  Chicago  in  particular. 

331 


The  brightest  newspaper  men  of  the  west  have  been,  at  vari- 
ous times,  associated  with  the  Tribune.  Ex-Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor  Bross,  Horace  White,  now  of  the  New  York  Evening 
Post,  Dr.  Charles  H.  Ray  and  James  W.  Sheahan,  George  P. 
Upton,  R.  W.  Patterson  and  Fred.  H.  Hall,  have  all  served 
on  its  staff.  Mr.  Sheahan  was  at  one  time  part  owner  of  the 
Chicago  Times,  and  wrote  a  "  Life  of  Stephen  A.  Douglas," 
and  various  pamphlets  and  works  of  smaller  scope.  George 
P.  Upton,  art  critic  and  litterateur,  at  present  the  senior 
editorial  writer  on  the  Tribune,  is  well  known  for  his  transla- 
tions from  the  German — especially  for  his  translation  of  Max 
Mueller's  "Story  of  German  Love" — for  his  art  and  literary 
criticisms  and  his  connection  with  the  various  musical  societies 
of  the  city.  The  Tribune  has  always  been  the  leading  organ 
of  the  Republican  party  in  the  northwest. 

The  Chicago  Times,  a  Democratic  organ,  owed  the  period 
of  its  greatest  prosperity,  as  well  as  of  ill-fame,  to  Wilbur  F. 
Storey,  who  concentrated  in  himself  all  that  is  characteristic- 
ally good  and  bad  in  the  modern  American  newspaper.  He 
was  as  unscrupulous  as  fearless,  as  debauched  as  brilliant,  as 
sensational  as  intelligent.  Belying  his  venerable  and 
respectable  appearance,  he  was  a  journalistic  Robespierre, 
guillotining  the  reputation  of  the  decent  by  thousands.  Feared, 
though  despised,  patronized  and  pandered  to  even  by  those  he 
attacked,  his  death — the  signal  for  rejoicing  among  all  classes 
but  the  criminal — brought  to  an  end  a  life  certainly  remark- 
able for  brilliancy,  audacity  and  intelligence,  but  misspent, 
inglorious,  vicious.  Mr.  Storey  opposed  the  war,  not  from 
principle,  but  for  sensationalism,  and  his  personal  abuse  of 
Lincoln  and  his  attacks  on  Union  soldiers  so  incensed  the 
people  that  they  broke  into  the  Time's  office,  and  the  paper 
was  suppressed  for  two  editions.  The  wrorst  feature  of 
Mr.  Storey's  paper  was  the  mingling  of  the  good  and  the 
bad.  Thus,  while  he  prostituted  the  moral  taste  of  the  city 
and  attacked  the  private  lives  of  men  who  stood  above 

332 


reproach,  he  also  attacked  various  public  abuses,  and  above 
all — printed  the  news.  He  gathered  around  him  a  staff  of 
exceptional  ability,  including  such  men  as  Frank  B.  Wilkie, 
Andre  Matteson,  Alexander  Botkin,  Charles  R.  Dennet,  Mar- 
tin J.  Russell  and  Horatio  W.  Seymour.  Mr.  Wilkie  wrote 
"  Sketches  Beyond  the  Sea,"  and  one  or  two  other  books,  and 
made  numerous  translations  from  the  French.  Martin  J. 
Russell,  the  present  editor-in-chief  of  the  Times,  is  remarkable 
for  his  terse,  epigrammatical  style.  After  the  death  of  Mr. 
Storey,  in  1884,  the  Times,  theretofore  highly  successful, 
entered  on  its  period  of  adversity.  In  November,  1891,  Carter 
H.  Harrison,  the  World's  Fair  mayor  of  Chicago,  bought  the 
paper,  and  since  that  time  it  has  regained  much  of  its  lost 
prestige. 

The  Chicago  Inter  Ocean  was  founded  in  1872  as  a  strictly 
Republican  paper,  and  has  always  been  a  pronounced  party 
organ.  Financially,  the  paper  was  never  remarkably  prosper- 
ous until  within  the  last  three  years,  H.  H.  Kohlsaat,  a  suc- 
cessful business  man,  bought  the  controlling  interest  in  it. 
Mr.  Kohlsaat  furnished  the  necessary  capital  to  push  the 
paper,  and  has  made  it  one  of  the  leading  journals  not  only  of 
the  city  but  of  the  northwest.  The  editor-in-chief  is  William 
Penn  Nixon,  one  of  the  best  known  of  Chicago  newspaper  men 
and  continuously  identified  with  the  Inter  Ocean  since  its 
organization.  One  of  the  special  features  of  the  paper 
has  been  its  dramatic  department,  under  Elwyn  A.  Barren, 
a  critic  of  intelligence  and  the  author  of  several  successful 
plays. 

The  Chicago  Herald  has  achieved  the  most  remarkable 
success  of  any  of  the  recently-founded  American  newspapers. 
Its  first  number  appeared  in  May,  1881,  and  for  a  time  the 
paper  was  Republican.  It  is  now,  however,  independently 
Democratic.  At  first  the  Herald  did  not  prosper,  but  in  1883 
John  R.  Walsh,  James  W.  Scott  and  Martin  J.  Russell  gained 
control  of  it,  Since  that  time  it  has  enjoyed  unexampled 

334 


prosperity,  due  in  no  small  degree  to  the  shrewd  and  at  the 
same  time  liberal  business  policy  pursued  by  James  W.  Scott, 
who  has  been  its  publisher  since  Mr.  Walsh  bought  the  con- 
trolling interest  in  the  paper,  and  with  his  large  fortune  put  it 
on  a  sound  financial  basis.  The  managing  editor  of  the  Her- 
ald is  Horatio  W.  Seymour,  one  of  the  ablest  writers  con- 
nected with  the  Times  under  Storey.  The  Herald  staff  is 
very  large,  and  its  corps  of  special  writers  the  brightest  in  the 
west. 

The  Chicago  Evening  Journal  was  established  in  1844,  and 
during  its  long  career  has  been  always  prosperous.  Andrew 
Shuman  was  its  first  editor,  and  was  assisted  by  George  P. 
Upton  and  Benjamin  F.  Taylor,  the  poet.  Mr.  Shuman  con- 
tinued to  edit  the  paper  until  his  death,  in  1890.  Aside  from 
his  newspaper  work  he  held  various  public  offices,  among 
others  that  of  Lieutenant-Governor  of  the  state.  John  R. 
Wilson  is  the  publisher  of  the  Journal  and  Slason  Thompson 
the  present  editor-in-chief.  Mr.  Thompson  is  one  of  Chi- 
cago's cleverest  newspaper  men,  and,  since  getting  control  of 
the  Journal,  has,  without  changing  its  policy  of  respect- 
ability and  reliability,  infused  into  it  something  of  his  own 
intense  energy  and  virility.  Slason  Thompson,  and  Martin  J. 
Russell  are  the  two  most  vigorous  and  forceful  editorial  writers 
of  the  city. 

In  1875,  the  Chicago  Daily  News  was  founded  as  a  one- 
cent,  independent  evening  paper.  For  a  time  the  new 
departure  led  a  precarious  existence,  but  in  1877  the  enter- 
prise of  its  controlling  spirit,  Melville  E.  Stone,  put  it  on  a 
sound  basis,  and  its  success  has  been  so  great  that,  from  a 
purely  commercial  standpoint,  it  is  probably  one  of  the  most 
profitable  newspaper  properties  in  the  world.  Mr.  Stone  was 
a  practical  newspaper  man,  and  gave  his  personal  attention  to 
the  editing  of  the  paper.  In  1876,  Victor  F.  Lawson  pur- 
chased a  half  interest  in  the  News,  assumed  the  business 
management,  and,  like  Mr.  Stone,  proved  remarkably  suc- 

335 


cessful  in  his  line  of  work.  In  March,  i88r,  the  News  pub- 
lished a  morning  edition,  which  at  first,  although  the  most 
enterprising  of  all  Chicago  papers,  and  remarkably  clever  as  a 
newspaper,  was  not  financially  successful.  After  Mr.  Stone 
sold  his  interest  in  the  paper  to  Mr.  Lawson,  the  latter  gentle- 
man put  the  price  of  the  paper  down  to  one  cent,  cultivated  a 
large  out-of-town  circulation,  and,  with  Dr.  F.  W.  Reilly  as 
managing  editor,  put  the  morning  edition  on  a  paying  basis. 
In  1892  he  changed  the  name  of  the  morning  edition  to  the 
Morning  News  Record,  and  recently — to  sharply  distinguish 
it  from  the  evening  edition,  with  which  it  has  no  real  con- 
nection— again  changed  it,  this  time  to  the  Chicago  Record. 
Under  Mr.  Stone's  management,  the  Morning  News,  inde- 
pendent in  politics,  was  a  powerful  factor  in  various  local 
reforms.  Perhaps  the  most  enduring,  and,  as  far  as  the  public 
at  large  is  concerned,  profitable  piece  of  work  ever  undertaken 
by  the  News,  was  when,  under  Dr.  Reilly,  it  proposed  and 
championed  the  drainage  channel,  which  is  at  present  being 
constructed.  Mr.  Stone  was  as  prodigal  of  his  money  as  of 
his  own  energy.  He  gathered  about  him  a  staff  of  excep- 
tional ability — such  men  as  Joseph  K.  C.  Forrest,  one  of  Chi- 
cago's oldest  and  brightest  newspaper  men  ;  John  Flynn,  John 
F.  Ballantyne,  Slason  Thompson,  Eugene  Field,  Robert  B. 
Peattie  and  Van  Buren  Denslow. 

The  Chicago  Evening  Post  is  one  of  the  cleverest  of  the 
afternoon  papers.  It  is  independent,  bright  and  newsy.  Like 
the  Herald,  it  is  published  by  James  W.  Scott,  while  much  of 
its  success,  from  a  newspaper  standpoint,  is  due  to  the  ability 
of  its  managing  editor,  Cornelius  McAuliff. 

The  Chicago  Mail  is  a  one-cent  evening  paper.  It  gained 
considerable  popularity  under  Joseph  R.  Dunlop,  one  of  the 
best  known  of  the  Storey  graduates  of  the  Times,  and  one  of 
the  shrewdest  of  Chicago  newspaper  men.  When  Mr.  Dun- 
lop  founded,  recently,  the  Chicago  Dispatch,  Mr.  Charles 
Almy  was  made  managing  editor  of  the  Mail,  The  Dispatch 

336 


is  the  last  daily  to  appear  in  Chicago.  Its  publisher,  Mr. 
Dunlop,  has  had  sufficient  experience  in  the  business  to  war- 
rant the  prediction  that  it  will  achieve  as  great  success  as 
the  other  papers  with  which  he  has  been  connected. 

Among  the  early  Chicago  newspaper  men  was  Charles  A. 
Dana,  of  the  New  York  Sun,  managing  editor  of  the  one- 
time Chicago  Republican.  The  paper  was  backed  by  ample 
capital,  was  a  handsome  and  attractive  sheet,  and  had  the  best 
possible  editorial  ability,  and  still  was  a  failure.  Mr.  Dana 
has  never  forgiven  Chicago  for  not  appreciating  him,  and  the 
malignant  but  impotent  attacks  of  his  New  York  papers  are 
undoubtedly  due  to  this  fact.  Chicago  reporters  are  among 
the  brightest  in  the  country,  and  scores  of  the  best  New  York 
men  received  their  training  in  Chicago. 

In  the  difficult  task  of  digesting  and  assimilating  into  the  body 
politic  the  large  numbers  of  non-English  speaking  immigrants 
who  come  to  America,  the  "foreign"  papers  have  rendered 
most  efficient  aid.  The  fact  that  they  are  published  in  a 
foreign  tongue  does  not  prevent  them  from  handling  the  news 
substantially  as  do  the  papers  printed  in  English,  and  in  gen- 
eral, these  foreign  papers  are  animated  by  the  same  prin- 
ciples and  follow  the  same  general  ideas  as  their  English  con- 
temporaries. In  this  way  they  educate  foreign  immigrants  to 
American  modes  of  thought  and  life,  and  instruct  them  in  the 
laws  of  the  land  and  their  duties  as  citizens,  even  before  the 
newcomers  master  the  English  tongue.  In  this  regard  the 
German  press  deserves  especial  mention,  and  the  best  German 
dailies  compare  not  unfavorably  with  papers  of  the  same  class 
printed  in  English. 

In  1846  Chicago's  first  German  paper,  Der  Volksfreund, 
was  founded  by  a  New  York  compositor  named  Hoeffgen. 
It  was  a  weekly,  and  Mr.  Hoeffgen  wrote  it  exclusively  with 
the  shears.  He  did  his  own  type-setting,  printing  and 
delivery  of  papers,  and,  despite  his  intense  interest  in  his 
paper,  it  was  not  enthusiasm  alone  that  prompted  him  to 

22 

337 


sleep  on  and  under  the  "  exchanges."  Francis  A.  Hoffman, 
later  Lieutenant-Governor  of  the  state,  at  one  time  contributed 
to  the  Volksfreund,  and  his  editorials  exerted  a  marked  influ- 
ence upon  the  Germans.  After  a  two  years'  struggle  the 
paper  died,  but  Hoeffgen  at  once  founded,  in  connection  with 
Dr.  Helmuth,  the  Illinois  Staats-Zeitung.  Dr.  Helmuth  was  a 
young  physician  just  arrived  from  Germany,  and,  after  a  year, 
found  his  time  so  taken  up  with  his  practice  that  he  resigned 
the  managing  editorship  of  the  paper  in  favor  of  Col.  Arno 
Voss.  Helmuth  did  not  entirely  sever  his  connection  with  the 
Staats-Zeitung,  however,  and  until  1852  wrote  occasionally 
for  it.  Since  then  he  has  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  his 
profession.  Up  to  this  time  the  Staats-Zeitung  had  been  a 
weekly,  but  now  George  Schneider  came  from  St.  Louis, 
assumed  editorial  charge  of  the  paper  and  made  it  a  daily.  It 
was  at  once  successful,  and  Schneider  won  a  great  reputation. 
He  had  been  a  revolutionist,  and  was  condemned  to  death  in 
Germany.  During  the  stormy  days  preceding  the  war  he 
took  an  active  part  in  public  affairs,  and  was  a  persistent  and 
implacable  foe  to  slavery.  He  gathered  an  excellent  staff 
and  the  paper  became  the  leading  German  organ  of  the  north- 
west. At  the  close  of  the  war,  Mr.  Schneider  was  sent  to 
Denmark  on  a  diplomatic  mission,  and,  since  his  return,  has 
been  chiefly  engaged  in  commercial  life,  being  at  present 
the  president  of  the  National  Bank  of  Illinois.  When 
Schneider  went  abroad,  Lorenz  Brentano  purchased  the 
paper,  and  afterwards  sold  a  half  interest  to  A.  C.  Hesing. 
Brentano  was  dictator  of  Baden  during  the  German  revolu- 
tion, and  had  been  a  prominent  statesman  and  jurist  in  Ger- 
many. In  America  he  identified  himself  with  German-Amer- 
ican interests,  and  before  and  during  the  rebellion  was  a 
staunch  supporter  of  the  Republican  party.  In  1867  he  sold 
his  interest  in  the  Staats-Zeitung  to  A.  C.  Hesing  and  went 
to  Europe,  where,  owing  to  his  influence  with  the  European 
press,  his  knowledge  of  international  law  and  his  ability 


as  a  jurist,  he  was  able  to  create  a  favorable  public  opinion  as 
to  the  rights  of  the  United  States  in  the  Alabama  claims.  In 
recognition  of  his  services,  President  Grant  appointed  him  as 
consul  to  Dresden,  in  1872,  and  in  1876,  on  his  return  to  the 
United  States,  he  was  elected  to  Congress.  He  died  in  Chi- 
cago in  1891. 

When  he  gained  control  of  the  Staats-Zeitung,  A.  C.  Hesing 
exerted  considerable  influence  in  practical  politics.  He  still 
owns  a  controlling  interest  in  the  paper,  but  pays  little  atten- 
tion to  its  management.  In  1866,  Mr.  Hesing  brought  Her- 
mann Raster  from  New  York,  and  made  him  managing  editor. 
With  him  was  associated  Wilhelm  Rapp,  who,  on  Raster's 
death,  in  1891,  assumed  full  charge  of  the  paper. 

Hermann  Raster  was  one  of  the  foremost  journalists  of 
the  country,  and  was  a  recognized  power  in  political  circles. 
He  was  a  highly  educated  man,  and,  like  many  other  of 
the  prominent  Germans  of  the  past  forty  years,  was  a  48'er. 
Soon  after  his  arrival  in  America  he  did  such  brilliant  work 
on  the  New  York  press  as  to  win  an  international  reputation. 
He  was  active  in  the  founding  of  the  Republican  party,  and 
during  the  war  created  a  European  sentiment  in  its  favor  by 
his  correspondence.  His  articles  in  the  German  press  assisted 
the  government  in  disposing  of  many  of  its  bonds  in  Germany. 
The  Staats-Zeitung  achieved  its  greatest  success  under  his 
editorship — his  articles  being  copied  by  the  German  press  of  the 
whole  country.  In  1872  he  was  internal  revenue  collector,  but 
later  resigned  to  be  able,  more  consistently,  to  advocate  Grant's 
re-nomination.  Raster  was  a  member  of  the  board  of  educa- 
tion, and  held  other  offices  of  trust  and  honor,  although  he 
accomplished  his  greatest  good  as  a  journalist.  He  died  in 
Germany,  but  was  buried  in  America,  being  honored  by  one 
of  the  largest  public  funerals  ever  held  in  Chicago.  William 
Vocke  was  formerly  city  editor  of  the  Staats-Zeitung,  but 
later  resigned  to  practice  law.  He  has  written  a  popular 
work  on  American  jurisprudence,  has  translated  considerable 

34° 


classic  poetry  from  German  into  English,  and  is  a  well-known 
leader  of  German  thought  in  Chicago. 

The  Chicago  Telegraph  and  the  Union,  General  Lieb's 
paper,  were  two  German  ventures  that  proved  unsuccessful. 

In  1871,  the  Freie  Presse  was  founded  as  an  illustrated 
weekly,  but  later  was  published  as  a  daily.  Like  the  world, 
it  was  created  out  of  nothing,  but  the  latter  creation  was  slow 
and  tedious.  Richard  Michaelis  was  the  editor  and  publisher, 
and  was  greatly  assisted  by  his  wife,  a  lady  of  considerable 
literary  ability.  Gradually,  however,  all  difficulties  were 
overcome,  the  paper  became  financially  independent  and  pros- 
perous, and  very  influential.  It  has  five  editions,  two  daily, 
two  weekly  and  one  Sunday.  It  is  distinguished  for  its  bitter 
fights  against  anarchy  and  all  violent  and  radical  labor  move- 
ments. Aside  from  his  reputation  as  editor  of  the  Freie 
Presse,  Mr.  Michaelis  gained  considerable  renown  by  his 
"  Looking  Further  Forward,"  a  reply  to  Edward  Bellamy's 
"Looking  Backward."  Michaelis'  book  has  been  translated 
into  various  foreign  languages,  and  has  received  excellent 
criticisms  in  all  political  science  circles. 

In  1889,  Fritz  Glogauer  established  the  Abendpost,  a  popu- 
lar independent  evening  paper,  which  from  the  first  met  with 
the  most  extraordinary  financial  success. 

The  Tageblatt  is  a  more  recent  addition  to  the  German 
press  of  the  city,  and  is  designed  especially  as  the  organ  of 
the  German  Lutherans. 

The  National  Zeitung  led  a  brief  but,  from  a  literary  stand- 
point, a  glorious  career.  It  was  an  exceptionally  brilliant 
journal,  but  lacked  subscribers  and  advertising  patronage,  and 
was  forced  to  go  under.  Joseph  Brucker  was  the  publisher, 
and  Paul  Haedicke  the  managing  editor.  He  was  assisted  by 
Dr.  Edmund  Markbreiter  and  Miss  Dorothea  Boettcher,  a 
German  writer  of  note  in  both  prose  and  verse.  When 
Mr  Brucker  retired  from  the  paper  and  it  ceased  to  appear  as 
a  daily,  all  was  not  lost,  for  it  continued  to  appear  as  a 


weekly,  and  bids  fair  to  become  a  success.  Another  German 
weekly  of  importance  is  the  Rundschau. 

Two  well-known  German  writers,  who  occasionally  contri- 
buted to  the  press,  were  Caspar  Butz  and  Emil  Dietzsch. 
Butz  was  a  poet  of  real  genius,  helped  to  unify,  by  his  writ- 
ings, the  German  sentiment  against  slavery,  and  gained  a 
reputation  not  only  in  America,  but  also  in  Europe.  His 
poems  have  been  printed  in  book  form. 

Emil  Dietzsch  was  among  the  German  pioneers  of  '48,  and 
came  to  Chicago  in  1853.  He  was  a  man  of  culture,  a  fine 
poet,  a  prolific  writer  on  social  and  political  topics,  and  an 
orator  who  could — and  did — speak  on  all  occasions  with  the 
greatest  felicity.  He  was  highly  esteemed  by  his  countrymen, 
over  whom  he  exerted  the  greatest  influence. 

Of  the  Scandinavian  papers,  the  most  important  is  the 
Skandinaven,  published  by  John  Anderson.  It  has  a  daily  and 
weekly  edition,  and  not  only  goes  to  every  state  in  the  Union 
and  to  Canada,  but  also  to  Denmark,  Sweden,  Norway, 
Australia  and  the  Sandwich  Islands.  The  paper  is  well-edited, 
newsy  and  highly  successful. 

There  are  numerous  other  foreign  papers  published  in  Chi- 
cago, in  Italian,  Swedish,  Polish,  Bohemian,  French  and  other 
languages,  and  all  are  doing  a  good  work  in  teaching  the  new- 
comers something  about  American  ideas,  and  the  duties  of 
American  citizenship.  In  addition  to  the  general  press,  Chi- 
cago has  journals  published  in  the  interest  of  almost  every 
large  trade  and  industry. 


342 


Germans  ana   German   Influence   in 
Chicago. 

There  is  no  other  American  city  that  has  so  large  a  Ger- 
man element  as  Chicago.  The  Germans  are  far  stronger, 
numerically,  than  any  other  nationality  in  the  city,  but  neither 
their  political  influence  nor  their  social  achievements  are  in 
proportion  to  this  numerical  strength.  This  is  due  to  the 
peculiar  individualism  of  the  Germans — to  their  lack  of  har- 
mony among  themselves  and  their  frequent  inability  to 
co-operate  with  each  other  in  large  enterprises.  This 
national  characteristic  is  being  overcome,  in  a  measure,  by 
Germans  both  abroad  and  at  home.  Especially  noticeable 
has  been  the  reaction  since  1870,  when  the  unification  of  the 
German  nation  became  the  forerunner  of  unity  among  all 
Germans  in  both  sentiment  and  interest.  It  is  slow  work, 
however,  to  change  the  habits  of  centuries,  and  the  German  ele- 
ment in  Chicago  is  still  suffering  from  the  differences  and  dis- 
sensions of  the  past.  None  more  keenly  appreciate  this  fact 
than  the  Germans  themselves,  and  they  recognized  their  fail- 
ing even  before  the  reaction  set  in.  It  was  in  1871  that 
Eduard  Schlaeger,  then  editorial  writer  on  the  Staats-Zeitung, 
sharply  criticized  German  customs  in  America.  Mr. 
Schlaeger  was  a  close  student,  and  in  his  general  char- 
acterization was  correct,  when,  as  the  result  of  his  twenty 
years'  experience  among  the  Germans  of  Chicago,  he  said: 
"  The  history  of  the  development  of  the  German- Americans  can 
be  divided  into  three  periods  ;  or,  better  stated,  perhaps,  can 
be  regarded  from  three  main  points  of  view.  At  first  the 
German  immigrants  regard  themselves  as  a  German  colony, 
as  missionaries,  as  modern  Greeks — the  salt  of  the  earth. 
America  seems  to  them  a  very  barbarous  and  unpleasant 

343 


country,  as  a  colorless  present,  to  escape  from  which — as  soon  as 
the  necessary  number  of  the  almighty  dollar  can  be  procured — 
must  be  the  first  and  highest  aim  of  every  sensible  person. 
Until  this  end  is  attained  they  seek,  as  far  as  possible,  to  repro- 
duce Germany  in  America,  and  the  more  exclusive  and 
reserved  they  are  in  their  conduct  toward  Americans,  the 
more  does  everything  go  '  gerade  wie  in  Deutschland '  (just 
as  in  Germany).  This  reproduction  of  Germany  has,  of 
course,  very  different  stages  according  to  the  education  of 
each  individual  German  ;  missionary.'  In  little  places  in 
which  the  Germar  element  is  represented  by  the  simple,  not 
to  say  simpletons  the  German  colony  confines  itself  to  spend- 
ing evenings  and  Sunday  afternoons  in  some  modest  tavern 
over  the  foaming  barley  juice,  to  mocking  the  hypocritical 
Yankees,  with  their  eyes  turned  heavenward  and  their 
thoughts  otherward,  and  finally  to  singing  some  sentimental 
song  of  the  fatherland.  Where  the  Germans  are  more 
numerous  and  better  educated  they  go  a  few  steps  further, 
build  theatres,  music  halls,  organize  turning  and  singing 
societies,  and  regard  these  achievements  as  great  deeds, 
entitling  them  to  have  their  names  entered  in  the  book  of  his- 
tory— especially  the  history  of  culture — in  red  ink.  The 
highest  performances  in  this  line  are  the  great  saengerfests 
and  productions  of  German  opera  by  members  of  these  sing- 
ing societies.  It  is  impossible  to  accurately  set  the  time  limits 
to  this  first  period  of  the  German  colonists  ;  each  new  relay  goes 
through  the  same  process  of  development  and  is  fooled  by  the 
same  delusions  as  its  predecessors,  which,  meanwhile,  have 
entered  the  second  period — that  of  indifference  to  specific  Ger- 
man endeavors  and  of  approach  to  American  methods.  Of 
these,  to  be  sure,  the  colonist  learns  only  the  disagreeable  ones, 
the  greed  for  gold  and  the  business  shrewdness,  unrelieved 
by  the  other  American  traits — liberality,  public  spirit  and 
interest  in  the  affairs  of  the  city,  state  and  nation.  *  *  * 
These  indifferent  mules,  who  are  neither  donkeys  nor  horses, 

344 


The  Humboldt  Monument. 


neither  Americans  nor  Germans,  offend  the  ear  of  the  edu- 
cated with  their  miserable  English,  and  soon  forget  the  mag- 
nificent German  language  and  murder  it  as  badly  as  they  do 
English.  Sometimes,  however,  these  fellows  of  the  second 
period  fall  back  into  the  first  period,  when  the  number  of 
their  countrymen  is  so  great  as  to  bring  some  big  political 
office  into  reach.  Once  elected,  however,  the  '  professional 
Germans '  immediately  kick  over  the  German  ladder  on  which 
they  have  climbed  into  prominence. 

"  It  is  harder  to  trace  the  beginnings  of  the  third  period 
of  the  development  of  the  German-American — when  he  is 
assimilated  into  American  civic  life,  to  which  he  contri- 
butes the  desirable  and  adaptable  characteristics  of  his 
nationality.  Gradually,  however,  from  the  level  mass  of 
Germans  some  individuals  spring  forth  into  prominence, 
and  each  year  more  follow.  Certain  businesses  fall 
entirely  into  the  hands  of  these  leaders — especially  is  this 
true  of  the  wine  and  tobacco  trade  and  of  the  handling  of 
porcelain.  In  manufactures  and  the  arts  the  Germans  take  a 
prominent  place,  and  all  the  best  gold  and  silver  work  is 
done  in  German  work-shops.  Of  course  it  goes  without 
saying  that  the  Germans  are  at  the  head  of  the  beer 
industry." 

When  this  characterization  of  the  Germans  was  writ- 
ten it  was  more  or  less  true,  but  times  have  happily 
changed.  In  strong  contrast  with  Mr.  Schlaeger's  pessimism 
the  following  optimistic  quotation  may  be  made  from  a 
biographical  essay  written  by  Emil  Dietzsch :  "  It  will  be  my 
especial  contention,"  he  wrote,  "that  it  is  the  German  element 
which  has  chiefly  assisted  the  native  Americans  in  the  incom- 
parably rapid  development  of  the  city,  for  although  the  Amer- 
icans must,  as  a  rule,  be  characterized  as  liberal  and  magnan- 
imous, it  is  still,  unfortunately,  true  that  they  are  very  loath  to 
make  the  well-deserved  public  recognition  of  the  services 
which  the  immigrants  (and,  most  of  all,  their  blood  relations, 


the  German  immigrants)  have  everywhere  rendered  through- 
out the  land.  On  this  account  the  author  feels  especially 
called  upon  to  assert  that  the  labor  of  the  actual  erection  of 
the  miles  of  magnificent  houses  of  our  young  metropolis  on 
the  shores  of  Lake  Michigan,  was,  for  the  most  part,  per- 
formed by  Germans.  And  this  is  true  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  the  number  of  the  Germans  has  never  exceeded  one- 
third  of  the  total  population  of  the  city. 

"Yea,  where  the  sparks  fly  and  the  bellows  blow,  where 
the  hammer  beats,  and  the  anvil  rings,  where  the  dust  falls 
from  file  and  saw  and  the  chips  from  chisel  and  plane,  where 
carpenters  and  masons  toil  and  sweat,  in  north,  east,  south 
and  west  of  this  great  and  glorious  land,  there  for  the  most 
part  is  it  the  dextrous  hand  of  the  German  which  builds  and 
shapes  and  makes  real  the  great  thoughts  of  the  engineer  and 
architect. 

"And  when  far  from  out  the  thick,  primeval  forest,  over  the 
nodding  heads  of  the  wheat  fields  and  through  the  climbing 
vines  of  the  vineyard  floats  a  joyous,  touching  melody,  the 
listening  wayfarer  knows  it  is  from  the  lips  of  a  German,  for 
with  German  hearts  ever  wander,  over  land  and  sea,  music 
and  German  song.  And  the  listener's  heart  rejoices  and  an 
inner  voice  whispers  very  gently  to  him:  'O,  son  of  the 
Fatherland,  what  a  precious  factor  thou  hast  become  in  the 
great  folk-conglomerate  of  this  nation!  Thy  reliability,  thy 
sense  of  justice,  thy  industry  and  earnestness  in  home  life  and 
public  life  have  made  thee  the  kernel  people  of  all  the  peoples 
of  this  republic,  and  in  future  time  the  fully  developed  Amer- 
ican nation  will  itself  have  unmistakable  characteristics,  cus- 
toms and  methods  of  thought  as  witness  of  thy  potent  influ- 
ence.'" 

It  is  certainly  due  to  the  idealistic  and  philosophic  influence 
of  the  Germans  that  life  on  this  continent — and  to  a  remark- 
able degree  in  cosmopolitan  Chicago — has  been  relieved  of  its 
wearying  monotony,  its  toil  and  burdens.  In  marked  contrast 

343 


to  the  Puritan,  who  tries  to  force  everyone  to  be  happy 
according  to  his  own  stern  and  sober  notions,  is  the  German 
with  his  light-hearted  philosophy,  strong  love  for  music  and 
art,  and  hearty  enjoyment  of  the  rational  pleasures  of  life. 
The  Germans  aim  at  the  broader  development  of  man,  and 
take  life  more  easily  and  poetically,  not  allowing  themselves  to 
be  totally  absorbed  in  daily  toils  and  money-getting.  It  were 
a  mistake,  however,  to  suppose  that  German  influence  upon 
the  American  people  is  due  entirely  to  the  Germans  in 
America.  It  is  from  the  great  centers  of  German  learning 
and  culture  that  much  of  this  influence  comes,  from  German 
universities,  music  and  art  schools — from  German  prose,  and 
German  poetry.  Thus,  as  has  already  been  pointed  out,  in 
spite  of  many  and  manifold  stimulating  elements,  and  their 
numerical  strength,  the  Germans  in  Chicago  have  not,  as 
such,  been  able  to  exert  Hue  influence,  either  in  the  line  of 
culture  or  politics.  The  inability  to  subordinate  petty  per- 
sonal interests  to  great  ends;  that  constant  squabbling  about 
personal  rights,  which  the  Americans  call  "  Dutch  quarrels," 
still  stand  in  the  way  of  full  and  free  German- American  pro- 
gress. There  are,  however,  many  mitigating  circumstances. 
Not  all  those  who  come  from  the  other  side  appear  in  real 
life  as  they  are  depicted  by  Fourth  of  July  orators  or  stump- 
speakers  shortly  before  election.  Not  all  of  them'  are  men, 
who,  animated  by  a  glowing  impulse  for  freedom,  have  come 
here  to  escape  the  tyranny  of  bloody  despots  at  home,  and  to 
develop,  unhindered,  their  moral  ideals  in  this  land  of  freedom. 
Whoever  has  seen  the  steerage  of  an  ocean  steamer,  knows 
this.  Not  the  thirst  for  freedom,  but  the  hunger  for  bread, 
brings  most  to  America.  Only  the  few  come  from  intellect- 
ual or  moral  reasons;  the  many  are  moved  by  urgent  neces- 
sity of  a  purely  material  nature. 

The  girl  who  has  been  working  in  almost  slavish  depend- 
ence, for  a  miserable  pittance,  hears  from  some  friend  in 
America  of  the  great  servant  girl  paradise  across  the  seas  ; 

350 


the  younger  son  of  some  petty  farmer  who  has  given  his 
little  all  to  his  oldest  boy  on  condition  that  he  be  cared  for  in 
his  declining  years,  prefers  going  to  America  than  serving  his 
brother  at  home  ;  the  rural  tradesman,  a  vegetarian  against 
his  will,  who  has  heard  that  in  America  people  have  meat 
three  times  a  day  ;  the  strong,  vigorous  day  laborer,  made 
stupid  by  too  much  work  ;  the  mill-hand  grown  stolid  with 
more  than  his  share  of  the  burdens  of  life  ;  the  father  of  a 
big  family  who,  on  the  evening  of  his  life,  tears  himself  from 
the  dear  old  home,  and  with  a  heavy  heart,  transplants  him- 
self into  foreign  soil — solely  for  the  sake  of  his  children  ;  the 
walking  delegate,  who,  tired  of  working  with  his  hands, 
wants  to  give  his  mouth  a  chance  ;  the  fellow  who  can't  get 
along  harmoniously  with  the  state's  attorney  ;  the  unap- 
preciated genius  who  has  striven  in  vain  for  recognition  ;  the 
spendthrift  fleeing  from  his  creditors — -all  these  are  typical 
figures  among  immigrants,  come  they  from  Germany  or  else- 
where. And  first  of  all,  these  people  have  to  provide  for 
their  bodily  wants — to  earn  bread.  Only  after  they  have 
lived  in  America  and  have  laboriously  worked  out  of  their 
poverty,  and  have  begun  to  read  German  papers,  and  gradu- 
ally German  books  even,  do  any  considerable  number  of  them 
become  good  Germans — that  is  to  say  that  they  first  learn  to 
understand  and  appreciate  German  culture  and  German  ways 
— in  America.  Some  of  them  never  get  beyond  the  struggle 
for  daily  bread.  Others  again  fail  absolutely  to  comprehend 
the  question  of  culture,  intellectual  and  artistic  endeavor  and 
the  feeling  of  nationality — they  know  only  the  "  stomach 
question,"  and  as  between  a  sausage  and  a  symphony,  they 
would  jump  for  the  sausage.  In  addition  to  all  this,  even 
those  Germans  who  are  intelligent  and  in  easy  circumstances 
are  politically  unschooled,  and  prefer  to  leave  governing  to 
the  government,  and,  much  to  their  own  detriment,  take  only 
a  passive  interest  in  politics,  looking  upon  the  doings  of  the 
politicians  much  as  circus  spectators  look  upon  the  per- 

351 


formers — quite  oblivious  to  the  fact  that  they  are  in  reality 
part  of  the  political  circus  themselves. 

All  these  considerations  must  be  borne  in  mind  in  judging 
Chicago  Germans;  but' despite  these  handicaps,  the  Germans 
will  doubtless,  in  course  of  time,  assume,  both  in  poli- 
tics and  society,  a  position  in  accordance  with  their  numerical 
strength. 

In  social  life  they  have  their  own  theatres  and  theatrical 
entertainments,  their  clubs,  societies  and  charitable  institutions. 
As  a  rule  they  attend  their  own  churches,  which  are  numer- 
ous and  well  supported.  Their  professional  men  stand  well 
and  their  business  men  are  successful.  They  form  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  small  tax-paying  class,  and,  more  than  any  other  na- 
tionality of  the  city,  the  Germans  own  the  homes  they  live  in. 

During  the  war  the  Germans  proved  themselves  faithful  to 
their  new  fatherland.  As  a  class  they  are  sound  on  matters 
of  public  policy,  have  always  opposed  the  inflation  of  the  cur- 
rency, for  instance,  and  no  German  paper  ever  dared,  or 
wished  to  advocate  "  fiat  "  money  or  free  silver  coinage.  Dur- 
ing the  last  twenty  years  there  has  been  a  constantly  recur- 
ring agitation  as  to  the  advisability  of  teaching  the  German 
language  in  the  public  schools.  The  desire  of  the  Germans 
to  have  their  language  taught  publicly  is,  they  claim,  often 
misunderstood.  It  is  by  no  un-American  spirit  that  the  leaders 
in  the  movement  are  animated.  They  claim  that  the  teaching 
of  one  of  the  great  modern  languages  in  the  public  schools 
of  a  cosmopolitan  city  like  Chicago  is  of  the  greatest  benefit 
to  the  children,  that  far  from  being  a  detriment  to  the  teach- 
ing of  English,  the  teaching  of  German  is  a  positive  help  to  it, 
that  the  cost  of  the  instruction  is  insignificant  compared  to  the 
benefit  derived,  and  that  were  the  teaching  of  German  given 
up  it  would  result  in  the  removal  from  the  public  schools  of 
thousands  of  children  who  would  be  sent  to  private  schools, 
even  though  they  should  fail  to  there  receive  the  thoroughly 
American  education  afforded  by  the  public  schools. 

352 


Population, 

The  last  school  census  of  the  city  of  Chicago,  taken  May, 
1892,  showed  a  total  population  of  1,438,010,  of  which  760,143 
were  males,  and  677,867  females.  The  present  (estimated) 
annual  growth  of  the  city  is  100,000  souls,  so  that  with  this 
increase  and  the  thousands  gained  by  annexation  within  the 
year,  the  present  population  of  Chicago  is  estimated  to  be 
1,618,010  souls. 

The  last  general  census  (1890)  showed  a  population  of 
1,208,669,  °f  which  there  were  645,890  males,  and  562,779 
females.  The  different  nationalities  were  represented  as 
follows  : 


Germans  ...........................  384,958 

Native-born  Americans  ............  292,463 

Irish  ................................  215,534 

Bohemians  .........................  54,209 

Poles  ...............................  52,756 

Swedes  ............................  45,877 

Norwegians  .......................  44,615 

English  .............................  33,785 

French  .............................  12,963 

Scotch  ..............................  11,927 

Russians  ...........................    9,977 

Italians  .............................    9,921 

Danes  ..............................    9,891 


Dutch 4,912 

Hungarians ; 4,827 

Roumanians 4,350 

Welsh 2,966 

Swiss 2,735 

Mon  golians 1,217 

Greeks 689 

Belgians 682 

Spaniards 297 

Portuguese 34 

West-Indians 37 

Hawaiians 31 

East-Indians  ...  .28 


Canadians  ..........................    6,989 

The  third  largest  element  of  Chicago's  foreign  population  are 
the  Scandinavians  —  the  Norwegians,  Swedes  and  Danes. 
Thrifty  and  prosperous,  the  Scandinavian  citizens  of  Chicago 
closely  resemble,  in  general  characteristics,  their  German 
cousins,  and,  like  them,  have  their  own  churches,  societies  and 
newspapers.  The  Norwegians  were  among  the  first  settlers 
of  the  city,  and  contributed  largely  to  the  development  of  lake 
navigation.  The  Bohemians  of  Chicago  now  number  about 
60,000  persons,  equally  divided  between  the  Slavonic  and 

23 

353 


the  Germanic  element.     Of  the  60,000  Poles  in  the  city,  most 
belong  to  the  unskilled  laboring  classes. 

For  the  last  few  years,  Chicago  has  received  an  unusually 
large  p.er  cent  of  the  total  number  of  immigrants  coming  into  the 
country.  But  of  late,  with  the  desirable  immigrants,  there  has 
come  a  very  undesirable  class,  hailing,  for  the  most  part,  from  the 
Polish  provinces  of  Russia  and  the  south-eastern  part  of  Europe 
in  general.  The  result  of  this  latter  class  of  immigration  is  that 
the  people  of  the  west  have  ceased  to  regard  every  increase  in 
population  as  a  necessary  index  to  increased  prosperity.  They 
have  learned  to  scrutinize  the  character  of  the  immigrants  and 
have  found  that,  with  the  easily  assimilated  German,  Scandi- 
navian and  Irish  immigrant,  come  others  whom  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  assimilate  into  the  body  politic.  The  problem  of 
governing  the  great  American  cities  is  becoming,  therefore, 
alarmingly  difficult.  Under  liberal  naturalization  laws,  these 
undesirable  elements  enjoy  all  the  rights  and  privileges  of  a 
citizenship  for  which  they  are  totally  unprepared  and  unfit. 
Local  politics  in  Chicago  are  thus  growing  more  demoralized 
year  by  year,  and  demagogues,  who  make  it  a  business  to 
organize  these  un-Americanized  masses  for  selfish  ends,  are 
alarmingly  prosperous.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  courts 
are  so  notoriously  lax  in  their  examination  of  candidates  for 
citizenship,  and  fail  to  make  use  of  such  means  as  are  at  their 
command  for  the  exclusion  of  the  vicious,  ignorant  and  unfit 
applicants.  The  national  laws  in  regard  to  pauper  and  con- 
tract-labor immigration  would  form  a  barrier  to  a  great  part 
of  the  undesirable  influx  from  abroad,  were  they  only  rigidly 
and  conscientiously  enforced.  And  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  pub- 
lic opinion,  already  aroused  on  the  question,  will  soon  prove 
so  strong  as  to  force  a  remedy  adequate  to  the  evil. 


354 


Trade,  Commerce  and  Manufactures. 

Chicago  is  pre-eminently  the  American  city.  American 
enterprise,  American  methods,  and  the  true  American  spirit 
have  made  it.  As  the  typical  city  of  progress,  Chicago 
eagerly  adopts  every  new  invention,  utilizes  every  new 
method,  and  encourages  every  new  idea.  Nowhere  else  in 
the  world  does  life  bear  so  plainly  the  stamp  of  progress; 
nowhere  does  the  struggle  for  existence  so  plainly  betray  the 
changes  brought  about  by  the  employment  of  modern 
machinery,  which,  replacing  human  labor,  increases  pro- 
duction a  hundred-fold,  nowhere  can  one  obtain  a  glimpse 
into  a  happier  industrial  future.  Civilization  is  striving  for 
new  forms,  new  methods,  and  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  say,  that 
the  great  problems  with  which  the  present  age  is  struggling 
are  seeking  their  solution  here.  The  mere  wish  for  it  does 
not  make  progress,  which  is  always  the  result  of  hard  work — 
sometimes  made  easier,  to  be  sure,  by  chance  and  circum- 
stance. Thus,  in  Chicago,  all  conditions  are  favorable  for 
rapid  evolution.  Modern  industry  and  machinery  necessitate 
a  new  order  of  things,  and  Chicago  has  more  readily  adapted 
itself  to  this  new  order  than  have  the  older  cities  of  the'  world. 
This  is  one  cause  of  Chicago's  success,  and  also  of  the  fact  that 
so  many  energetic  and  progressive  elements  concentrate  here. 
Another  cause  is  the  city's  geographical  position,  lying  in  the 
line  of  all  great  trans-continental  railways,  in  the  centre  of  a 
fertile  territory  of  thousands  of  miles  in  extent,  and  at  the  foot 
of  Lake  Michigan,  which,  connecting  with  the  Atlantic  ocean, 
affords  the  city  a  water  commerce,  equal  in  tonnage  to  that  of 
London  itself. 

10,556  vessels,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  5,966,626 
tons,  arrived  at  the  port  of  Chicago  in  1892,  and  the  clear- 

356 


ances  numbered  10,567  vessels,  with  a  tonnage  of  5,968,337 
tons,  giving  a  total  tonnage  of  11,934,963  tons  for  the  year 
1892,  against  11,031,552  tons  in  1891.  Chicago's  tonnage 
exceeds  that  of  Liverpool,  and  also  the  combined  tonnage  of 
San  Francisco,  Boston  and  Havre,  but  does  not  quite  equal 
that  of  New  York.  The  most  extensively  used  ship-canal  of 
the  world  is  within  the  commercial  sphere  of  Chicago,  the  St. 
Mary's  Fall's  canal  ("The  Soo").  The  tonnage  carried  on 
the  great  lakes  aggregated  30,299,006  tons,  comprising 
28,295,959  tons  in  the  United  States  coast-wise  trade,  and 
2,003,047  tons  in  the  United  States  foreign  trade.  The  ton- 
nage which  passed  through  the  St.  Mary's  Falls  canal  aggre- 
gated 8,454,435  tons,  and  that  which  passed  through  the 
Detroit  river  was  21,684,000  tons — the  tonnage  which  at  the 
same  time  passed  through  the  Suez  canal  was  6,890,094  tons. 
The  number  of  vessels  on  the  northern  lakes  June  30, 1891, 
was  3,600,  aggregating  a  tonnage  of  1,061,882  tons.  Of 
these  vessels  310  were  steamers  of  more  than  one  thousand 
net  registered  tons.  The  combined  fleets  of  the  Atlantic  and 
Gulf  coast,  the  Pacific  coast  and  the  western  rivers,  contained 
at  the  same  date  only  213  steamers  of  more  than  one  thousand 
tons  register.  The  aggregate  tonnage  of  these  steamers  on 
the  northern  lakes  was  512,787  tons,  exceeding  the  combined 
tonnage  of  this  class  of  vessels  in  all  other  ports  of  the  United 
States  by  193,000  tons.  On  December  31,  1891,  there  were 
eighty-nine  steel  vessels  on  the  lakes,  with  a  tonnage  of  127,624. 
tons,  and  valued  at  about  $14,500,000.  Five  years  before 
there  were  on  the  great  lakes  but  six  steel  vessels,  with  a 
total  tonnage  of  6,459  tons,  and  a  total  valuation  of  $694,000. 
Since  1891  over  fifty  steamers  have  been  built,  and  others  are 
now  in  process  of  construction.  The  deepening  and  improv- 
ing of  channels  on  the  great  lakes  have  brought  about  the 
construction  of  these  enormous  lake  steamers,  which,  in  turn, 
have  been  the  cause  of  the  reduction  in  lake  transportation 
rates.  In  1859,  the  cost  of  carrying  a  bushel  of  corn  from 

357 


Chicago  to  Buffalo  by  water,  was  15^  cents;  in  1890,  the 
average  rate  was  1.9  cents;  in  1891,  it  was  carried  at  i  cent  per 
bushel,  but  during  the  latter  part  of  the  season  rates  advanced 
to  about  3  cents  per  bushel.  The  commerce  consists  chiefly  of 
grain,  iron  and  copper  ore  and  lumber,  and,  of  course,  the  value 
of  the  cargoes  carried  by  lake  steamers  is  not  nearly  so  great 
as  of  those  carried  by  ocean  vessels  of  the  same  kind. 

Chicago's  railway  system  developed  with  fabulous  rapidity. 
About  1835  Chicago  had  to  get  the  large  part  of  its  food- 
stuffs from  other  states.  In  the  early  4o's  the  neighboring 
farmers  produced  enough  for  themselves  and  Chicago.  Soon 
the  necessity  was  felt  for  an  outside  market  for  the  surplus 
products.  In  the  winter  of  1842-3  the  prices  of  all  kinds  of 
farm  products  fell  below  the  cost  of  production.  Dressed 
hogs,  for  instance,  sold  for  12  shillings  a  hundred  pounds; 
lard,  $3.50  per  hundred;  flour,  $5.00  a  barrel;  oats  and  pota- 
tos,  10  cents  a  bushel;  eggs,  4  cents  a  dozen;  chickens,  5  cents 
apiece.  These  prices,  of  course,  were  ruinous,  and  caused 
the  farmers  to  keep  their  surplus  produce  over  winter  and 
ship  it  to  New  York  in  the  spring.  Then  the  large  freight  to 
New  York  absorbed  most  of  the  profits.  It  took  the  farmers 
on  the  Rock  river  five  days  to  get  30  bushels  of  wheat  to 
the  market,  and  then  they  never  got  more  than  $12  a  load. 
During  the  early  5o's  farmers  brought  their  products  to  Chi- 
cago from  as  far  as  300  miles  away,  but  never  got  in  return 
more  than  enough  to  buy  groceries  with.  They  often  camped 
east  of  State  street,  in  large  numbers.  With  the  arrival  of  the 
first  locomotive,  of  course,  all  things  changed.  Less  than  forty 
years  have  elapsed  since  then  and  Chicago  to-day  is  the  term- 
inal of  twenty-six  trunk  lines,  and  has  various  smaller  branch 
roads.  Over  90,000  miles  of  railroad  now  terminate  in  Chi- 
cago, connecting  the  city  directly  with  the  principal  Atlantic, 
Pacific  and  Gulf  ports,  with  Canada  and  Mexico.  For  the 
last  ten  years  Chicago's  east-bound  freight  has  averaged 
4,000,000  tons  annually. 

358 


In  1892  Chicago  received  256,000,000  bushels  of  grain  (in- 
cluding flour  in  its  wheat  equivalent) ;  the  elevators,  which  are 
under  the  control  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  have  a  capacity  of 
30,325,000  bushels.  One  of  these  elevators  holds  over  3,000,000 
bushels  of  grain.  In  1892  there  were  received  at  the  Chicago 
market  7,714,435  hogs,  3,571,796  cattle,  2,145,079  sheep, 
149,496,436  pounds  of  dressed  beef,  68,371,502  pounds  of  lard, 
64,252,364  pounds  of  cheese,  134,196,828  pounds  of  butter, 
5,500,000  bushels  of  potatoes,  18,000,000  pounds  of  broom- 
corn,  23,500,000  pounds  of  tallow,  104,688,  barrels  of  oatmeal, 
28,388,364  pounds  of  wool,  1,243,721  barrels  of  salt,  and 
2,203,874  feet  of  lumber. 

While  all  else  in  Chicago  was  making  rapid  progress,  the 
clearings  of  the  Board  of  Trade  fell  from  $104,083,529.67  in 
1891  to  $69,295,992.62  in  1892.  This,  however,  simply  shows 
that  there  has  been  less  speculation  on  the  board — not  that 
less  legitimate  business  was  done.  While  the  clearings  of  the 
Board  of  Trade  showed  this  decided  falling  off,  the  bank 
clearings  in  Chicago  showed  an  increase  from  $4,456,885,- 
230.49  in  1891,  to  $5,135,771,186.74  in  1892. 

Commenting  on  this  falling  off  in  the  speculative  business 
of  the  Board  of  Trade,  its  secretary,  George  F.  Stone,  in  his 
annual  report  says: 

"The  business  of  buying  and  selling  for  future  delivery  was  unsatisfactory  through- 
out the  year.  Never  was  the  speculative  business  of  this  board  so  harrassed.  Legislative 
meddling  (the  Hatch  and  Washburn  bills  in  Congress,  proposing  laws  against '  dealings 
in  futures')  silver  discussion,  unfavorable  weather  conditions  early  in  the  year  in  the  win- 
ter wheat  belt  region,  despondent  foreign  markets  occasioned  by  heavy  stocks  purchased 
at  high  prices,  heavy  failures  in  prominent  continental  markets,  steady  accumulations  of 
grain  at  easily  accessible  points  for  shipments,  all  not  only  disturbed,  but  subdued  the 
markets  all  over  the  world,  and  speculators  grew  weary  waiting  for  business  and  dis- 
trustful of  indications  which  under  normal  conditions  would  have  infused  animation  to 
trade. 

Every  attempt  to  advance  prices  of  wheat,  the  leading  speculative  cereal,  was  unsuc- 
cessful, and  farmers  rushed  their  grain  to  market,  even  while  expecting  the  Hatch  bill  to 
become  a  law.  They  had  joined  the  tirade  against  speculation,  and  could  not  withdraw; 
but  however  plausible  the  arguments  of  politicians,  they  knew  that  there  was  no  hope 
for  better  prices  should  the  Hatch  heresy  succeed.  Hence  the  volume  of  receipts  of 
grain  at  this  great  center  was  limited  only  by  the  capacity  of  transportation  facilities  to 
.  bring  it  hither.  This  was  the  real  expression  of  the  farmers'  opinion  of  the  Hatch  bill, 
and  which  was  diametrically  opposite  to  his  expression  of  that  document  as  made  known 
in  some  instances  to  his  congressional  representative." 

360 


The  value  of  foreign  merchandise  imported  directly  to  the 
city  was,  in  1892,  $17,388,496,  and  the  duty  on  the  same 
amounted  to  $7,490,578.91.  In  1891  the  duty  on  mer- 
chandise imported  by  Chicago  amounted  to  only  $5,983,589.72, 
and  in  1890  to  but  $5,048,771.85. 

Chicago's  great  factories,  equipped  with  every  modern 
appliance  and  machine,  are  principally  due  to  the  enterprising 
spirit  of  the  capitalists,  most  of  whom  are  native  Americans. 
The  skilled  laborers  in  the  factories  are,  however,  chiefly  for- 
eigners. Chicago  boasts,  among  its  capitalists,  more  "self- 
made  men "  than  any  other  city  in  the  world.  The  city  has 
quickly  repaid  the  foreign  and  eastern  capital  which  once  ruled 
it  and  is  now  financially  independent,  being  reckoned  no  longer 
as  a  debtor,  but  as  a  creditor  city.  In  1890  the  factories  of 
Chicago  numbered  3250  and  represented  an  investment  of 
$190,000,000.  They  employed  177,000  men  who  receive  I 
$96,200,000  in  wages  and  produced  merchandise  to  the 
amount  of  $558,000,000.  The  manufactures  of  Chicago 
include  almost  everything  needed  by  man.  The  city  contains 
100,000  more  males  than  females,  which  fact  accounts,  in 
part,  for  the  very  rapid  growth  of  manufacturing  and  building 
industries,  transportation  facilities,  wholesale  trade  and 
the  banking  business.  Over  1000  firms  and  corporations 
are  engaged  in  transportation.  They  employ  about  60,- 
ooo  persons,  as  follows:  railways,  31,000;  street  rail- 
ways, 8500;  express  companies,  1500;  navigation  com- 
panies, 8000;  teaming  and  livery  companies,  10,000  etc.  The 
textile  trades  represent  1500  firms,  employing  55,000 
persons.  Other  trades  and  industries  are  represented  as 
follows  :  clothing  and  furnishing  goods,  cloaks  and  milli- 
nery, dry  goods  and  notions,  1000  firms,  with  35,000  em- 
ployees; hides,  wool,  leather,  boots  and  shoes,  harness,  belt- 
ing and  other  leather  and  rubber  goods,  325  firms,  with  12,- 
ooo  employees;  food,  drink,  tobacco,  drugs  and  agricultural 
products  3300  firms,  with  110,000  wage-workers,  of  whom 

362 


the  meat  packers  employ  about  30,000,  the  hotels  and  res- 
taurants about  10,000,  etc. ;  lumber,  wooden  ware,  furniture, 
boxes  and  cooperage,  7000  firms,  with  45,000  employees; 
metal  trades  and  manufactures,  1500  firms,  with  88,000 
employees — steel  rails,  machinery,  stoves,  heating  apparatus, 
velocipedes,  scales,  tinware,  brass  goods,  musical  and  electrical 
instruments  and  hardware  being  manufactured  in  large  estab- 
lishments; printing,  publishing  and  paper,  1000  firms,  with  26.- 
ooo  employees;  building  trades,  4000  firms,  with  60,000 
employees;  dealers  in  coal  and  wood,  1000  firms,  with  5000 
employees;  gas  companies,  with  2000  men ;  miscellaneous  trades 
(chemicals,  crockery,  etc.)  200  firms,  with  2000  employees; 
banking,  real  estate,  insurance,  amusements,  etc.,  about  3500 
firms  and  corporations,  with  12,000  employees.  Department 
stores  are  extending  their  trade  in  various  lines  and  easy  pay- 
ments at  installment  stores,  have  revolutionized  the  retail  busi- 
ness in  household  goods.  Six  of  the  large  wholesale  and 
retail  department  stores  employ  over  15,000  persons. 

The  industrial  interests  of  the  city  are  highly  centralized; 
thus  three  foundries  employ  1920  men;  four  machinery  man- 
ufactories employ  6800  men;  one  glue  works  employs  600 
men;  three  planing  mills,  900  men;  four  musical  instrument 
factories,  2000  men;  three  furniture  factories,  2500  men;  three 
carriage  and  wagon  factories,  900  men ;  two  soap  factories, 
1300  men;  two  electric  works,  2500  menj  one  boot  and  shoe 
factor}-,  900  men ;  one  cloak  factory,  700  men  and  women ; 
two  millinery  concerns,  800  persons;  one  retail  store,  2200  per- 
sons; one  bicycle  factory,  1000  men; two  brass  factories,  1900 
men;  one  car  factory,  4500  men;  one  printing  house,  1000 
men;  one  restaurant,  325  men;  three  hotels  1550  persons;  one 
brewery,  300  men. 

In  the  retail  business  33,000  firms  and  135,000  persons  are 
engaged.  Among  the  retail  business  houses  are  3500  grocery 
stores,  7000  saloons,  2200  meat  markets,  1056  bakeries,  1385 
barber  shops,  1350  shoe  stores,  561  blacksmiths  and  horse- 

364 


shoers,  175  book  stores,  1400  confectionery  and  fruit  stores, 
1500  cigar  stores,  noo  coal  dealers,  231  crockery  stores,  850 
clothing  and  gentlemen's  furnishing  goods  stores,  1430  dry 
goods  and  notion  stores,  730  drug  stores,  568  dentists,  141 
dyers,  587  flour  and  feed  stores,  240  florists,  700  hardware 
stores,  429  jewelers,  800  laundries,  1250  milk  dealers,  570 
millinery  stores,  225  musical  instrument  stores,  600  plumbers, 
400  furniture  stores,  150  photographers,  and  330  undertakers. 
This  shows  one  person  employed  in  retail  business  for  every 
eleven  of  the  city's  inhabitants. 

The  foregoing  figures  were  furnished  largely  by  Joseph 
Gruenhut,  city  statistician,  who  makes  the  following  comment 
on  the  industrial  activity  of  modern  cities:  "In  the  large 
manufacturing,  establishments  of  to-day,  the  productive  capa- 
city of  every  workman  is  enormously  increased  by  the  use  of 
steam  and  labor-saving  machinery.  One  workman  in  a  large 
modern  factory  can  do  from  5  to  10  times  as  much  productive 
work  as  could  the  workman  of  50  years  ago,  who  performed 
in  his  own  little  shop,  all  the  various  processes  of  manu- 
facture. Then  the  cost  of  the  labor  so  increased  the  price  of 
the  manufactured  articles  as  to  limit  demand,  and  few 
workmen  were  formerly  employed  in  industries  now 
using  thousands  of  workers.  Thus,  for  example,  very 
few  persons  make  all  parts  of  a  watch  to-day  ;  but  each 
worker  in  a  factory  makes  some  one  particular  part  of  the 
completed  product.  The  result  is  that  the  process  has  so 
cheapened  the  cost  of  watch  production  as  to  greatly  increase 
the  demand.  Great  factories  mass  people  together  in  cities 
like  Chicago,  and  the  presence  of  factories  of  different  kinds, 
so  cheapens  the  cost  of  the  production  of  the  various  articles 
manufactured,  as  to  make  them  come  within  the  reach  of  an 
ever  increasing  number  of  men,  and  thus  an  increasing  popu- 
lation is  easily  cared  for.  Were  this  not  true,  no  city  would 
attract  a  population  of  1,500,000  people.  Liberal  use  of  capi- 
tal has  made  the  great  factories  possible  and  increased  the 

366 


productivity  of  human  labor,  with  the  result  that  there  has  been 
an  actual  or  real  increase  in  the  wages  of  the  working  classes. 

"  The  distribution  of  merchandise  to  the  consumer — the  retail 
trade — is  a  personal  service,  and  does  not  admit  of  the  use  of 
labor-saving  machinery  in  any  great  degree.  Stores  increase 
with  the  increase  and  spread  of  the  population,  but  the  number 
of  the  great  factories  becomes  less,  and  the  small  factories  are 
no  longer  profitable.  On  the  other  hand,  certain  industries 
are  absorbed  into  trusts,  and  thus  all  the  benefits  of  competi- 
tion are  gradually  lost.  This  modern  tendency  is  noticed  in 
the  monopoly  of  gas-works,  distilleries,  petroleum  and  india 
rubber,  and  attempts  have  already  been  made  to  check  the 
evil  by  a  law,  which  shall  not  prevent  the  benefits  of  a  central- 
ization of  interests,  but  will,  nevertheless,  secure  to  the  gen- 
eral public  the  benefits  of  competition." 

In  his  report  for  1892,  Secretary  Stone,  of  the  Board  of 
Trade,  touches  on  the  same  ground  when  he  says: 

"  The  crops  of  the  country,  which  constitute  the  basis  of  all  departments  of  business, 
have  been  large,  and  have  given  to  the  grain  receivers  a  great  activity  and  volume  of 
business,  which  has  been  fairly  remunerative.  It  is  regretted  that  this  prosperity  has  not 
been  generally  diffused,  and  that  the  business  connected  with  the  board  has  exhibited 
the  prevailing  tendency  of  the  principal  industries  to  concentration  and  monopoly,  so  that 
the  comparatively  small  merchant  has  not  met  with  that  full  participation  in  the  advan- 
tages resulting  from  the  heavy  receipts  of  the  year  which  he  had  a  right  to  expect." 

During  the  year  1892,  3,010,543^  barrels  of  beer  were 
brewed  in  Chicago,  and  2,875,818^4  barrels  were  sold.  The 
tax  from  this  source  amounted  to  $2,660,132.  Overpro- 
duction and  bad  faith  among  the  brewers  in  living  up  to  their 
mutual  agreements,  have  caused  a  great  falling  off  in  the 
brewing  profits  of  Chicago.  Capital  in  breweries  is  no  longer 
regarded  as  a  gilt-edged  investment,  and  the  English  syndi- 
cates, who  bought  up  so  many  American  breweries,  are  still 
waiting  for  the  fabulous  profits  they  were  promised.  The 
Chicago  production  in  distilled  spirits  in  1892  amounted  to  but 
6,858,249  gallons,  as  against  8.979,958  gallons  for  1891,  and 
10,778,000  gallons  in  1890.  Like  the  brewing  industry,  the 
distilleries  are  suffering  from  over-production. 

368 


Indian  Group  in  Lincoln  Park. 


Chicago  is  the  great  market  for  small  retail  dealers  of  the 
west.  The  competition  between  the  lake  transportation  com- 
panies and  the  railroads  does  much  to  keep  freight  rates  down 
and  to  assist  in  making  Chicago  the  great  market  for  the 
"jobbing  trade."  In  1890,  Chicago's  business  in  this  line 
amounted  to  $486,600,000.  Of  this  sum  there  was  expended 
$93,730,000  for  dry  goods,  $56,700,000  for  groceries, 
$25,000,000  for  boots  and  shoes,  $25,500,000  for  paper  and 
carpets,  $22,000,000  for  musical  instruments,  $20,035,000  for 
raw  iron,  $20,400,000  for  jewelry,  watches  and  diamonds, 
$15,580,000  for  building  iron,  and  $13,500,000  for  spirituous 
liquors. 

The  suburban  train  service  and  the  city  street  railway — both 
of  which  have  their  terminals  in  the  down-town  portion  of 
Chicago — have  contributed  largely  to  the  building  up  of  great 
department  stores,  which  tend  to  do  away  with  the  small 
retail  stores  throughout  the  city.  In  thirteen  of  these  great 
central  retail  stores,  lying  between  State  and  Wabash  avenue, 
and  Washington  and  Adams  streets,  over  12,000  persons  are 
employed,  three-fifths  of  the  number  being  women.  It  is 
impossible  for  the  smaller  retail  stores  of  the  city  to  success- 
fully compete  with  these  great  institutions.  In  thirteen  of 
these  large  retail  department  stores  are  employed  one-fifth  of 
all  the  persons  engaged  in  the  city's  retail  trade. 

Chicago's  real  estate  and  building  interests  are,  of  course, 
enormous.  In  the  year  1890  the  real  estate  transfers  amounted 
to  $227,000,000,  but  in  1891  and  1892  they  fell  off  consider- 
ably. In  1886,  they  aggregated  $86,000,000;  in  1887, 
$95,000,000;  in  1888,  $93,000,000;  in  1889,  $135,000,000, 
and  in  1891,  $178,600,000.  In  building  activity,  the  years 
1891  and  1892  far  surpassed  all  previous  records.  From  iSSi 
to  1888,  the  average  annual  expenditure  for  new  buildings 
was  $19,000,000;  in  1889  it  was  $25,065,000;  in  1890, 
$47,322,000;  in  1891,  $55,360,000;  in  1892,  $64,740,800. 

The  banking  business  of  the  city  is  a  simple  index  to  its 

370 


business  growth.  The  total  capital  of  the  twenty-six  national 
banks  in  Chicago,  in  1892,  was  $23,300,000,  and  of  the 
twenty-three  state  banks  $12,577,000,  and  in  addition  there 
were  numerous  private  banks  representing  a  large  capital. 
In  1890,  the  clearings  by  the  associated  banks  of  Chicago 
were  $4,093,145,904;  in  1891,  $4,456,885,230;  in  1892, 


The  increase  in  the  deposits  of  Chicago  banks  is  enormous, 
exceeding,  in  the  last  six  years,  the  deposit  increase  in  the 
New  York  banks  by  125  per  cent.  This  is  a  significant  fact, 
and  shows  that  Chicago's  commercial  development  is  more 
than  twice  as  rapid  as  New  York's,  and  that  the  financial 
center  of  the  country  is  destined  to  be  Chicago. 

The  Chicago  post-office  does  an  immense  business.  In  1892, 
322,555,709  pieces  of  mail  matter  were  received  and  handled 
at  the  post-office.  The  postal  receipts  for  the  year  1892  were 
$4,265,975.14,  the  expenditures  were  but  $1,552,640.37,  leav- 
ing the  government  a  net  income,  from  the  Chicago  post- 
office,  of  $2,713,334.770  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  it  is  far  more 
than  self-supporting,  the  national  government  does  not  see  fit 
to  equip  the  Chicago  post-office  with  a  force  large  enough  to 
adequately  perform  the  enormous  amount  of  work  to  be  done. 
In  the  year  1891  the  Chicago  post-office  forwarded  more 
printed  matter  than  the  offices  at  Boston,  Cincinnati,  New 
Orleans,  Buffalo  and  Baltimore  together,  and  more  than  all 
the  post-offices  of  the  thirteen  southern  states,  including  the 
St.  Louis'  office.  Over  20,000,000  of  Chicago  newspapers 
were  mailed  in  Chicago  during  the  year  1892. 


Miscellaneous  Information. 

Chicago's  Municipal   Resources— Statistics — Public  Schools  -Municipal   Health 
Department— The  Drainage  Channel— The  City  Government. 

Chicago  is  850  miles,  by  the  most  direct  rail  communication, 
from  Baltimore,  the  nearest  sea-port,  1000  miles  from  New 
York,  and  2,417  miles  from  San  Francisco.  Its  mean  height, 
above  the  lake  level,  is  fourteen  feet,  and  its  altitude  above 
the  sea,  591  feet.  The  city  contains  181  square  miles,  or  115, 
328  acres.  The  revenue  of  the  city  of  Chicago  for  the  year 
ending  December  31,  1892,  was  $31,863,218.82,  and  the 
expenditures,  $30,069,963.65.  The  principal  sources  of 
income  were:  general  taxes,  $10,260,036.70;  special  asses- 
ments,  $6,600,310.69;  water  fund,  $2.901,428.49;  licenses, 
$3,908,948.96  (of  which  the  saloon  licenses  amounted  to 
$3,472,618.03) ;  school  fund,  $2,657,328.90.  The  principal 
expenditures  were  for  the  (department  of  public  works, 
$2,422,085.07;  for  the  fire  department,  $1,504,854.38;  police 
fund,  $3,008,990.39;  school  fund,  $2,650,167;  school  tax  fund, 
$4,229,974;  special  assessement  fund,  $6,799,094;  street  lamp 
fund,  $1,015,410,  and  water  fund,  $3,330,342.  The  total 
bonded  debt  of  the  city  is  $18,476,450.  The  work  of  making 
special  assessments  in  Chicago  has  so  increased  as  to  make 
this  bureau  the  largest  sub-department,  in  the  magnitude  of  its 
work,  in  the  city.  The  cost  of  such  public  improvements,  as 
paving,  sewer-building,  street  and  alley-grading,  sidewalk 
building,  laying  of  water  service  pipes,  and  erection  of  lamp- 
posts, is  defrayed  by  special  assessments  levied  on  the  prop- 
erty most  benefited  by  and  lying  nearest  to  the  public 
improvement.  In  1892,  the  assessments  for  wooden  block 
pavement  amounted  to  $6,056,442.19;  for  sewer  construction, 

372 


Water  Works  Tower. 


$3,864,7  J4  5  f°r  miscellaneous  street  and  alley  improvements, 
$1,301,491.99,  which,  with  all  other  special  assessments,  made 
a  grand  total  of  $14,505,701.79,  as  compared  with  $42,635  in 
1862,  $62,222.25  in  1872,  $1,227,169  in  1882,  and  $8,790,443 
in  1892.  This  levy  is  made  for  improvements  to  be  made 
during  the  year. 

Chicago  property  is  not  taxed  according  to  its  value,  but 
according  to  an  absurd  system  of  equalized  valuation.  The 
evils  of  this  system  are  apparent,  for  it  throws  on  the  tax- 
paying  property  owners  of  to-day  all  the  burden  of  improve- 
ments, the  benefits  of  which  will  accrue  to  posterity,  The 
actual  value  of  property  in  the  city  cannot  be  less  than  two 
billion  dollars,  but  the  equalized  valuation  is  only  $243,- 
732,138 — $12,867,657  less  than  the  equalized  valuation  of 
1891  and  almost  $55,000,000  less  than  the  property  valuation 
in  1875,  when  the  city  comprised  but  thirty-seven  square 
miles,  as  against  the  181  square  miles  of  to-day. 

By  the  constitutional  limit,  city  bonds  can  be  issued  only  to 
the  amount  of  5  per  cent  on  the  assessed  valuation  of  city 
property,  as  equalized.  On  a  proper  valuation  bonds  could  be 
issued  to  the  amount  of  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  millions 
of  dollars,  at  a  low  rate  of  interest,  and  the  proceeds  of  the 
sale  be  used  to  make  much  needed  improvements  that  are 
now  entirely  paid  for  by  the  heavily  taxed  property  owner  of 
to-day.  The  rate  of  taxation  could  be  reduced,  from  its 
present  figure — 7  per  cent,  on  the  present  valuation- — to  not 
over  2  per  cent  on  a  proper  one.  The  rate  in  New  York, 
in  1891,  was  1.90. 

Chicago's  public  and  private  school  system  is  excellent. 
The  enrollment  of  children  in  the  public  schools  for  the  year 
1891-92  was  157,743-  The  seating  capacity  of  all  city  school 
houses  was  in  February,  1893,  150,746,  and  of  this  capacity 
all  but  10,455  were  seats  in  buildings  owned  by  the  city..  The 
city  owns  about  250  school  buildings,  twenty-five  of  which 
were  opened  during  1892.  In  addition  to  these  250,  all  other 

374 


LaSalle  Street.  ,Front  oOhe'Clty  Hall. 


buildings  are  rented  for  school-house  purposes.  In  February, 
1892,  3,217  teachers  were  employed  in  the  public  schools,  and 
during  the  same  month  in  1893,  therewere  3,483  teachers. 

The  following  figures  are  taken  from  such  municipal  reports 
for  1892,  as  have  been  published  up  to  date  (April,  1893) : 

Miles  of  street  paved  in  1892 108 

Miles  of  paved  street  in  the  city 878 

Miles  of  street  in  the  city 2,370 

Buildings  erected  in  1892 I3>!94 

Their  cost $64,740,800 

Miles  of  sidewalk  built  in  1892 799 

Miles  of  sidewalk  in  the  city 3,637 

Gallons  of  water  furnished  in  1892 71,035,000,000 

Miles  of  sewers  in  the  city 992 

Lumber  received (in  feet)  2,203,874,000 

Lumber  shipped (in  feet)  1,060,017,000 

Shingles  received 395,206,000 

Shingles  shipped 140,227,000 

Tons  of  coal  received 5,529,468 

Tons  of  coal  shipped 942,068 

Pounds  of  lard  received 68,371,502 

Pounds  of  lard  shipped 398>9I5,558 

Pounds  of  dressed  meats  received I79,965,327 

Pounds  of  dressed  meats  shipped 1,212,344,343 

Barrels  of  pork  received .v 16,934 

Barrels  of  pork  shipped 294,781 

Pounds  of  butter  received 134,196,828 

Pounds  of  butter  shipped 140,494,155 

The  following  figures  are  taken  from  the  report  of  the  pre- 
ceding year: 

Number  of  social  clubs  in  Chicago 60 

Number  of  churches 513 

Number  of  railroads  entering  the  city 35 

Miles  of  street  car  tracks  in  the  city 395 

Miles  of  cable  car  tracks 68 

Number  of  police 2,298 

Number  of  fire  engines 72 

Number  of  fire  boats 3 

Number  of  chemical  fire  engines 23 

Number  of  firemen 998 

Number  of  bridges  across  the  Chicago  river 53 

Number  of  viaducts  over  railroads 31 

376 


The  high  buildings  in  Chicago  in  1892  were  equipped  with 
almost  7000  elevators.  The  number  of  daily  suburban  trains 
in  1880  was  128;  in  1890,  670;  the  number  of  through  pas- 
senger trains  in  1880  was  260;  in  1890,940;  number  of  hotels 
in  1880,  140;  in  1890,  267.  Since  the  great  fire,  68,774  build- 
ings have  been  erected  in  Chicago,  at  the  cost  of  $320,- 
000,000. 

Chicago  is  the  healthiest  large  city  on  the  globe,  having  a 
death  rate  lower  than  any  other  city  having  a  population  of 
500,000  persons  or  upwards.  In  1892  there  was  an  increase 
in  population  of  180,000,  with  a  decrease  of  1535  in  the  total 
number  of  deaths.  The  death  rate  per  thousand  in  1892  was 
18.23  in  Chicago  and  24.  in  New  York.  Although  there  were 
several  sporadic  cases  of  small-pox  in  Chicago  last  year,  no 
cases  were  communicated  in  the  city  itself,  all  cases  being 
early  diagnosed  and  removed  to  the  municipal  hospital  before 
the  contagion  spread. 

The  drainage  channel,  now  being  constructed  to  connect 
Chicago  with  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  by  means  of  the  Illinois 
and  Mississippi  rivers,  is  intended  to  make  Chicago  a  still 
healthier  city  by  at  once  and  forever  settling  the  question  of 
the  city's  sewage  disposition.  The  primary  object  of  the 
drainage  channel  is  simply  to  dispose  of  Chicago's  sewage, 
but  it  will  incidentally  open  a  waterway  from  the  great  lakes 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  furnish  a  water  power  of  the  great- 
est value  to  the  manufacturing  interests  along  its  proposed 
route.  The  simple  drainage  channel  is  to  be  built  at  the  expense 
of  the  "  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago,"  the  work  being  done 
under  a  legislative  enactment  of  1889,  which  created 
the  sanitary  district  and  gave  the  right,  under  certain 
limitations  and  restrictions,  to  cut  a  channel  through  the 
"divide"  so  that  the  sewage  of  Chicago  could  be  discharged 
into  the  Illinois  and  Mississippi  rivers.  This  act  also  provided 
for  the  issue  of  $15,000,000  of  twenty-year  bonds,  and  the  levy- 
ing of  a  tax  of  not  over  one-half  of  i  per  cent  per  annum  on 

377 


the  assessable  property  in  the  district,  with  the  further  provis- 
ion that  special  assessments  could  be  levied  on  property 
especially  benefited  by  the  work.  This  tax  of  one-half  of  I 
per  cent  a  year  is  to  pay  all  the  cost  of  making  the  channel 
— salaries,  office  expenses,  construction  expenses  and  principal 
and  interest  of  the  bonds.  The  bonds  are  issued  and  sold  for 
the  purpose  of  getting  money  with  which  to  push  the  work  to 
completion  in  four  years,  but  the  taxpayers  will  pay  them  off 
only  at  the  rate  of  one-half  of  i  per  cent  a  year.  The  cost  of 
the  simple  drainage  channel  is  now  estimated  at  about  $25,- 
000,000.  Over  80  per  cent  of  the  work  has  been  contracted 
for,  and  it  is  expected  that  the  channel  will  be  completed  by 
1897.  The  cost  to  date  has  been  $1,500,000,  and  if  the  ship 
canal  feature  is  carried  out,  the  cost  of  the  whole  work  will 
reach  $50,000,000 — but  for  this  latter  feature  the  co-operation 
of  city,  state  and  nation  must  be  secured. 

Joliet  first  pointed  out  the  commercial  advantages  of  a 
canal  connecting  Lake  Michigan  with  the  Illinois  and  Missis- 
sippi rivers.  Gallatin  wrote  about  it  and  others  urged  it  at 
various  times.  In  the  early  5ojs  Col.  J.  D.  Webster  pointed 
out  the  fact  that  Chicago  was  emptying  its  sewage  and  filth 
into  its  drinking  vessel — Lake  Michigan — and  urged  the  con- 
struction of  the  channel  as  the  solution  of  the  question  of 
proper  sewage  disposition.  City  Engineer  E.  S.  Chesbrough 
discussed  the  matter  from  an  engineering  point  some  years 
later,  but  it  was  1885  before  the  agitation  for  a  drainage  channel 
was  seriously  regarded.  August  3,  1885,  there  was  a  very 
heavy  rainfall  and  the  waters  of  the  Chicago  river  reached  the 
crib  and  polluted  the  city's  water  supply.  L.  E.  Cooley,  an  en- 
gineer, Ossian  Guthrie,  a  well-known  geologist,  and  Dr.  F.  W. 
Reilly,  of  the  Chicago  News,  discussed  the  situation,  decided 
the  drainage  channel  was  the  only  proper  (and  sooner  or 
later  the  inevitable)  solution  of  the  sewage  disposal  question, 
and  at  once  began  to  agitate  for  legislative  action,  authorizing 
the  organization  of  a  drainage  district  with  power  to  raise  money 

378 


for  the  purposes  of  constructing  a  drainage  channel.  Mr. 
Stone,  of  the  News,  was  induced  to  lend  the  influence  of 
his  paper  to  the  scheme,  but  the  greatest  opposition  was 
encountered  in  various  quarters.  Finally,  however,  the  san- 
itary district  was  created,  and  the  idea  slowly  became  popular. 
September  14,  1892,  seven  years  and  seven  days  after  the 
enterprise  was  first  urged  upon  the  people,  the  first  shovelful 
of  earth  was  turned  in  the  great  undertaking.  In  his  address, 
delivered  at  that  time,  Trustee  L.  E.  Cooley  said: 

The  work  this  day  begun  is  to  cover  the  Chicago  Divide,  forty  miles  from  Lake  Michi- 
gan to  Lake  Joliet,  with  over  thirty  miles  of  channel  complete  for  navigation.  The  cost 
will  be  greater  than  to  extend  fourteen  feet  for  280  miles  further  to  the  Mississippi.  The 
volume  of  water  will  give  steamboat  navigation  in  the  lower  river  without  obstructing 
locks  and  dams,  in  which  nature,  assisted  by  art,  may  develop  increased  depths.  Per- 
manent works  are  required  for  the  gap  of  fifty-five  miles  between  Joliet  and  Utica,  but 
this  problem  is  simpler  than  that  of  the  Chicago  divide. 

The  policy  underlying  the  law  is  an  open  river  below  Utica,  to  be  improved  pro- 
gressively in  conjunction  with  a  water  supply  from  Lake  Michigan;  works  above  Utica 
so  designed  as  to  permit  future  increase  of  capacity,  and  such  a  plan  for  the  Chicago 
Divide  as  will  facilitate  enlargement  to  any  requirement  of  water  supply  from  the  lakes 
to  the  Mississippi — the  entire  work  to  be  carried  out  through  the  co-operation  of  city,  state 
and  nation.  The  augmented  volume  southward  will  raise  the  call  down  to  the  Gulf  for 
all  the  lakes  can  spare.  The  lake  region  and  the  Mississippi  Valley  will  join  in  the 
largest  useful  development.  And  so,  the  sanitary  needs  of  that  future  which  no  man  can 
now  forsee,  will  surely  become  the  incident  of  a  commercial  purpose  that  enlists  the 
nation. 

This  is  the  logic  of  our  policy.  To-day  we  cut  the  Chicago  divide  for  an  urgent  sani- 
tary need  which  rouses  our  city  ;  and  in  so  doing  we  sever  the  gordian  knot  which  has 
fettered  all  projects,  loosen  possibilities  of  which  statesmen  have  dreamed  for  a  century ; 
and  in  the  manner  of  our  doing,  we  set  the  gauge  which  shall  govern  the  waterway  of  a 
continent.  He  who  sets  his  conception  as  the  limit  of  human  achievement  writes  in  his 
designs  the  obituary  of  his  enterprises.  This  city,  this  state,  this  nation,  are  but  in  youth, 
and  we  can  only  dream  of  what  they  may  seek  to  do  in  manhood  and  maturity.  We  do 
well  if  we  work  in  the  line  of  a  continuing  policy  and  construct  no  barriers. 

North  to  the  frozen  zone,  east  to  the  Alleghanies,  south  to  the  Gulf,  west  to  the 
Rockies— an  imperial  domain  of  resources  in  forest,  field  and  mine,  as  yet  but  scarcely 
opened — the  population  this  may  sustain,  the  civilization  that  may  mature,  is  beyond 
prophetic  ken.  Point  out  the  areas  of  richest  soil,  where  food  will  be  most  abundant, 
and  there  ultimately  will  it  be  densest.  Find  the  spot  where  the  commerce  of  this  people 
may  be  most  cheaply  handled,  to  which  food,  raw  material  and  power  shall  most  readily 
assemble,  and  from  which  manufactures  may  be  best  distributed,  and  there  will  be  the 
chief  city.  No  accident  placed  the  urban  population  of  the  United  States  on  navL 
gable  waters,  determined  wealth  along  their  shores,  and  located  the  most  valuable  rail- 
way properties  in  competition  therewith. 

Look  at  the  position  of  Illinois  in  respect  to  these  resources,  in  respect  to  transporta- 
tion by  rail  and  water,  and  in  respect  to  climate— is  she  not  to  be  the  central  ganglion  of  a 
marvellous  growth  ?  Look  at  her  chief  city ;  where  is  site  more  favored  ?  Provide  for 
health,  develop  the  facilities  which  nature  invites,  follow  a  policy  as  though  our  estates 
were  vested  in  one  man,  and  that  man's  life  prolonged  through  the  generations,  and  we 
rise  to  the  level  of  our  opportunities.  What  we  do  to-day  is  but  the  beginning.  An 
object  vital  in  itself  is  to  be  attained  as  soon  as  practicable ;  yet,  in  achieving  it,  we  but 

380 


Carter  M.  Harrison. 


unfold  larger  purposes,  purposes  that,  in  their  consummation,  are  but  added  resources, 
developing  our  estate  to  fuller  fruitfulness  by  works  that  involve  no  tax  for  operation, 
.maintenance  and  renewals,  carvings  on  the  bosom  of  mother  earth  that  will  persist  in 
usefulness  until  nature  in  her  cycles  renews  the  face  of  continents. 

Machines  will  vanish  in  rust,  the  proudest  monument  of  man  will  sink  to  rubbish 
heaps,  and  his  greatest  work  trail  in  curious  mounds,  while  this  goes  on  as  nature's  self, 
an  added  feature  to  mother  earth  as  though  it  had  always  been. 

The  municipal  government  of  Chicago  is  vested  in  exec- 
utive and  legislative  departments.  The  mayor  is  at  the  head 
of  the  executive  department,  and  also  ex-officio  chairman  of 
the  city  council,  the  legislative  department  of  the  local  govern- 
ment. The  city  council  is  composed  of  two  aldermen  from 
each  ward  in  the  city.  All  appropriations  are  made  by  this 
body.  The  mayor,  in  his  executive  capacity,  is  at  the  head  of 
a  great  corporation.  He  has  under  his  general  control  and 
supervision,  the  fire,  police  and  water  departments,  the  special 
assessment  bureau,  the  health  department,  $ie  legal  depart- 
ment, etc.  The  present  mayor  of  Chicago  is^the  Hon.  Carter 
H.  Harrison.  He  has  already  filled  the  office  for  four  terms — 
1879  to  1886 — and  his  recent  election  by  an  overwhelming 
majority,  in  the  face  of  the  political  or  personal  opposition  of 
every  prominent  paper  of  the  city — with  but  two  exceptions — 
is  a  proof  of  his  popularity.  Mr.  Harrison  thoroughly  under- 
stands the  business  of  the  city  government,  and  is  mayor  in 
fact  as  well  as  in  name.  He  is  a  gentleman"  of  distinct  social 
and  literary  attainments,  and  his  broad,,  liberal,  democratic 
public  policy  makes  him  a  great  favorite  among  the  masses  of 
the  people — especially  among  the  foreign-born  citizens  of  the 
city,  who  have  the  greatest  confidence  that  their  rights  and 
privileges  will  be  protected  under  his  administration. 


382 


The  World's   Fair. 

CHICAGO,  1893. 


Christopher  Columbus. 

April  25,  1890,  Benjamin  Harrison,  President  of  the  United 
States,  approved  an  act  of  Congress  providing  for  the  cele- 
bration of  the  four  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  discovery  of 
America  by  Christopher  Columbus,  by  holding  an  interna- 
tional exhibit  of  arts,  industries,  manufactures  and  the  products 
of  the  soil,  mine  and  sea,  in  the  city  of  Chicago.  Three  years 
and  a  week  after  the  act  of  Congress  became  a  law,  the 
greatest  peaceful  undertaking  of  modern  times  was  an 
achieved  fact.  The  history  of  the  World's  Columbian  Expo- 
sition is  a  tale  of  miracles.  It  is  a  string  of  wonders  that 
surpasses  fiction  in  strangeness,  and  that  will  stand  forever  as 

333 


a  mighty  monument  to  the  admirable  enterprise  and  indomit- 
able spirit  of  Chicago  and  its  people. 

It  was  on  the  evening  of  July  22,  1889,  that  the  first  public 
step  was  taken  in  regard  to  securing  the  fair  for  Chicago,  and 
then  began  the  memorable  struggle  between  New  York  and 
the  city  by  the  lake.  The  city  council,  on  the  date  named, 
formally  resolved  that  it  would  be  good  policy  to  make  every 
effort  to  secure  the  fair,  and  took  the  initiative  by  authorizing 
Mayor  Cregier  to  appoint  a  committee  of  250  citizens  to 
superintend  the  preliminary  work.  This  committee  was 
appointed  by  the  mayor  July  30,  1889,  and  held  its  first  meet- 
ing in  the  council  chamber  at  the  city  hall  August  2.  The 
best  known,  wealthiest  and  most  truly  representative  citizens 
of  Chicago  attended  that  meeting,  and  not  a  man  of  all  those 
called  upon  declined  to  serve.  Before  the  meeting  adjourned 
a  stock  company,  with  a  capital  of  $5,000,000,  had  been 
started,  and  its  affairs  were  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  small 
executive  committee.  Next  day  the  work  of  the  committee 
of  250  was  divided  among  numerous  sub-committees,  and 
popular  enthusiasm  in  the  work  began  to  develop.  By  Sep- 
tember 20,  the  necessary  funds  had  been  subscribed.  No 
sooner  had  the  public  announcement  been  made  that  the 
$5,000,000  was  raised,  than  New  York's  opposition  to  Chi- 
cago developed.  The  tidings  that  the  eastern  city  was  a  can- 
didate for  the  fair  came  September  25,  and  it  was  said  that  it 
would  raise  the  sum  of  $10,000,000  as  a  guarantee  for  the 
proper  performance  of  its  contract  if  given  the  fair.  From 
September,  1889,  to  February,  1890,  the  fight  between  the 
rival  cities  was  waged  without  ceasing,  in  and  out  of  Congress, 
and  there  are  few  who  forget  the  immense  amount  of  wire- 
pulling and  political  maneuvering  that  marked  the  struggle. 
All  the  forces  of  the  east  were  arrayed  against  the  influence 
of  the  west,  but  Chicago  won  the  fight. 

The  first  congressional  reports,  made  in  the  last  week  of 
October,  1889,  were  favorable  to  Chicago,  but  its  representa- 

384 


George  R.  Davis. 


25 


3^5 


tives  relaxed  no  efforts  until  the  great  struggle  finally  ended  in 
victory  February  24, 1890,  when  Congress  passed  the  act  cre- 
ating the  World's  Columbian  Commission.  Chicago  had  won 
its  victory,  but  its  difficulties  were  only  j.ust  beginning.  New 
York  had  agreed  to  raise  $10,000,000  as  a  starting  fund  for 
the  fair,  and  among  the  conditions  imposed  on  Chicago  by 
Congress  was  one  to  the  effect  that  it  must  do  as  New  York 
had  promised  to  do.  Consequently  the  next  few  months  were 
spent  in  work  among  the  aldermen  of  Chicago  and  the  state 
legislators  at  Springfield,  in  an  effort  to  secure  the  appropria- 
tion of  the  second  $5,000,000  by  the  city.  Finally  a  special 
session  of  the  Legislature  at  Springfield,  Illinois,  called  June 
12,  1890,  authorized  the  city  of  Chicago  to  increase  its  bonded 
indebtedness  $5,000.000  in  aid  of  the  fair. 

The  Jackson  Park  site  was  first  mooted  February  25,  the  day 
after  the  national  house  of  representatives  at  Washington  had 
declared  in  favor  of  awarding  the  fair  to  Chicago,  and  the 
advantages  of  the  site  at  once  became  so  apparent  that 
it  was  chosen.  That  brilliant  and  lamented  genius  John 
Wellborn  Root,  formulated  plans  for  the  building  of  the 
White  City,  and  although  he  did  not  live  to  see  them  carried 
into  execution,  his  successors  found  the  conceptions  of  his 
master  mind  so  perfect,  that  the  fair,  as  it  stands  to-day,  is 
practically  what  he  pictured  it  before  a  spadeful  of  earth  had 
been  turned.  Jackson  Park  has  been  transformed  from  a  dis- 
mal morass  into  a  city  of  white  palaces,  exemplifying  the  most 
perfect  architecture,  and  conveying  to  the  mind  of  the  visitor 
profound  admiration  for  the  aggregated  genius  that  has 
achieved  so  much  in  so  short  a  time. 

From  the  outset  of  the  exposition  undertaking,  the  women 
of  America  have  exhibited  the  liveliest  interest  in  it,  and  their 
co-operation  was  early  invited.  On  the  day  after  the  election 
of  George  R.  Davis  as  director-general,  a  board  of  lady  mana- 
gers was  appointed,  which,  under  the  presidency  of  Mrs.  Pot- 
ter Palmer,  of  Chicago,  has  labored  without  ceasing  for  the 

386 


Mrs,  Potter  Palmer, 


337 


general  good  of  the  enterprise  as  well  as  in  the  specific  direc- 
tion of  securing  a  complete  representation  of  woman's  work 
for  the  exposition.  In  every  state  of  the  Union,  and  in  every 
country  of  the  civilized  world,  the  influence  of  the  lady  mana- 
gers has  been  exerted,  and  as  a  consequence,  one  of  the 
most  interesting  of  all  the  buildings  at  Jackson  Park  is  the 
woman's  building. 

Early  in  the  history  of  the  exposition,  the  Sunday-closing 
question  began  to  be  agitated.  Various  well-meaning  but 
mistaken  persons  sought  to  influence  public  opinion  by  insist- 
ing that  the  fair  should  be  closed  on  Sunday.  They  were  so 
far  successful  as  to  induce  Congress,  when  making  its  last 
appropriation  of  $2,500,000  for  the  fair,  to  insert  a  clause  in 
the  act  providing  that  the  gates  of  the  exposition  shall  be 
closed  Sunday. 

THE   FAIR   MANAGEMENT. 

The  management  of  the  fair  is  vested  first,  in  a  Board  of 
Directors  representing  the  Chicago  stockholders  of  the  cor- 
poration, which  board  provides  the  funds  for  constructing  the 
buildings  and  preparing  the  grounds  for  the  reception  of 
exhibits  ;  second,  a  National  Commission,  composed  of  two 
commissioners  from  each  state  in  the  Union,  representing  the 
United  States  government  that  took  possession  of  the  exposi- 
tion after  the  dedication  in  October,  1892  ;  and  third,  the 
Board  of  Lady  Managers,  a  branch  of  the  National  Commis- 
sion that  has  jurisdiction  in  woman's  work  the  world  over,  and 
control  of  the  woman's  building.  A  list  of  the  officers  and 
members  of  these  three  bodies  follows : 

THE  LOCAL  BOARD 

OFFICERS. 

President H.  N.  Higinbotham. 


Vice-Presidents -J  K;  Wal'k?' 

Secretary H.  O.  Edmonds. 


Treasurer -Anthony  ]•'.  Seeberger. 

Auditor William  K.  Ackerman. 

.Attorney W.  K.  Carlisle. 


388 


DIRECTORS. 


William  T.  Baker. 
C.  K.  G.  Billings. 
Thomas  B.  Bryan. 
Edward  B.  Butler. 
Benj .  Butterworth. 
Isaac  N.  Camp. 
William  J.  Chalmers. 
Robert  C.  Clowry. 
C.  H.  Chappell. 
George  R.  Davis. 
Arthur  Dixon. 


James  W.  Ellsworth.  Thies  J.  Lefens. 
G.  P.  Englehard.         Andrew  McNally. 
Lyman  J.  Gage.  Adolph  Nathan. 

Chas.  Henrotin.  Robert  Nelson. 

H.  N.  Higinbotham.   John  J.  P.  OdelL 
Charles  L.HutchinsonFerd.  W.  Peck. 
Elbridge  G.  Keith.       E.  S.  Pike. 
William  D.  Kerfoot.   Washington  Porter. 
William  P.  Ketcham.  Alexander  H.  Revell. 
Milton  W.  Kirk.  Edward  P.  Ripley. 

Edward  F.  Lawrence.  A.  M-  Rothschild. 


George  Schneider. 
Charles  H.  Schwab. 
Paul  O.  Stcnsland. 
Henry  B.  Stone. 
Charles  H.  Wacker. 
Edwin  Walker. 
Robert  A.  Waller. 
Hempst'dWashburne 
John  C.  Welling. 
Frederick  S.  Winston. 
Charles  T.  Yerkes. 


THE    NATIONAL    COMMISSION. 


President Thomas  W.  Palmer,  of  Michigan. 


1st  Vice-President.  .Thos.  M. Waller,  Conn. 
2d  Vice-President..  .M.  H.  De Young, Cal. 
3d  Vice-President.. Davidson  B.  Penn,  La. 
4th  Vice-President,  Gorton  W.  Allen.  N.Y. 


tth  Vice-President,  Alex.  B.  Andrews, N.C. 

Secretary John  T.  Dickinson,  Tex. 

Director-General George  R.  Davis,  111. 

Vice-Ch'm'n  Ex. Com.,  Jas.A.M'Kenzie.Ky 


STATES. 


COMMISSIONERS. 


1 

Bullock  Augustus  G  

Allen,  Gorton  W^  

Wiedner,  Peter  A.  B  

Palmer,  Thomas  W  

Michigan 

I 

district  of  Columbia  J 

Furnas,  R.  W-  

Lindsay,  William  

Exall.  Henry  

McDonald   Mark  L. 

Britton.  Alex.  T  

Wilson,  Albert  A  

Bromberg,  F.  G-  

Hundley,  Oscar  R  .   . 

Clendenning,  J.  H  

Fort  Smith 

DeYoung,  M-  H  

I 

Forsyth,  William  

Goodell,  Roswell  E  

t 

Smith.  J.  H  

Brainard,  Leverett  

H  artf  ord 

t 

Waller,  Thomas  M.  . 

Massey,  George  V.  ... 

Dover 

I 
Florida 

Porter,  Willard  Hall.... 

Bielly,  C.  F.  A.  

De  Land 

1 

Turnbull,  Richard  

McLaws,  Lafayette  

t 
Idaho                                       j 

Way,  Charlton  H  

Manning,  George  A  

.  .  .  .                     Post  Falls 

1 

Stearns,  John  E^  

Deere,  Charles  H  

Ewing.  Adlai  T-  

Garvin,  Thomas  E  

EvansviUe 

i 
Iowa                  * 

Martindale,  E.  B  

Eiboeck,  Jos  

Des  Moines 

I 

King,  William  F. 

Holliday,  C.  K.,  Jr  

Topeka 

I 

Barton,  J.  R  

Bennett.  John... 

Richmond 

(  'McKenzie,  James  A  

,  ..Oak  Grove 

389 


STATKS. 


COMMISSIONERS. 


Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi      

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire... 

New  Jersey 

New  York 

North  Carolina  — 

North  Dakota 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina 

South  Dakota 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

West  Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 

Alaska 

Arizona 

New  Mexico 

Oklahoma 

Utah... 


Penn,  Davidson  13 Newrllton 

Woodward,  Thomas  J New  Orleans 

Bixby,  Augustus  R Skowhegan 

Davis,  William  G Portland 

Hodges,  James Baltimore 

Lowndes,  Lloyd Cumberland 

Breed,  Francis  W Lynn 

Proctor,  Thomas  E Boston 

Lane,  M.  Henry Kalamazoo 

Barbour,  George  H. Detroit 

Moore,  M.  B Duluth 

Tousley,  O-  V Minneapolis 

Bynum ,  Joseph  M Rienzi 

Saunders,  Robert  L Jackson 

Bullene,  Thomas  B Kansas  City 

Jones,  Charles  H St.  Louis 

Hershfield,  L  H Helena 

Mitchell,  A.  H Deer  Lodge 

Martin,  Euclid Omaha 

Scott,  Albert  G Kearney 

Haines,  Jam es  W Genoa 

Russell,  George Elko 

Aiken,  Walter Franklin 

McDuffie,  Charles  D. Manchester 

Sewell.  William  J Camden 

Smith,  Thomas Newark 

Depew,  Chauncey  M. New  York 

Thatcher,  John  Boyd Albany 

Andrews,  A.  B Raleigh 

Keogh,  Thomas  B Greensboro 

Rucker,  H.  P Grand  Forks 

Ryan,  Martin Fargo 

Platt,  Harvey  P ..Toledo 

Ritchie,  William Hamilton 

Klippel,  Henry Jacksonville 

Wilkins,  Martin Eugene 

Ricketts.  R.  Bruce Wilkes-Barrc 

Woodside,  John  W Philadelphia 

Gpff ,  Ly man  B Pawtucket 

Sims,  Gardner  C Providence 

Butler,  A.  P Columbia 

Cochran,  John  R Walhalla 

Day,  Merritt  H Rapid  City 

Mclntyre,  William Watertown 

Baxter,  Louis  T Nashville 

Williams,  Thomas  L Knoxville 

Cpchran,  A.  M Dallas 

Dickinson,  John  T Austin 

Mclntyre,  Henry  H W.  Randolph 

Smalley,  Bradley  B Burlington 

Groner,  Virginias  D Norfolk 

Harris,  John  T Harrisonburg 

Drum,  Henry Tacoma 

Hopkins,  Charles  B J Spokane 

Butt,  James  D Harper's  Ferry 

St.  Clair,  J.  W Fayetteville 

Allen,  Philip.  Jr Mineral  Point 

Coburn,  John  M West  Salem 

Beckwith,  Asahel  C Evanston 

Hay,  Henry  G Cheyenne 

DeGroff,  Edward Sitka 

Williams,  Louis  L Jur.eau 

Coats,  George  F Phoenix 

Meade,  W.  K Tombstone 

Gutierres,  Thomas  C Albuquerque 

White,  Richard  M Hermosa 

Beeson,  Othniel El  Reno 

Gammon'  F.  R Guthrie 

Kiesel,  Frederick  J Og'lcn 

Lannan,  Patrick  H Salt  Lake  City 


39° 


BOARD    OF   LADY    MANAGERS. 


OFFICERS. 


President Mrs. 

1st    Vice-President,  Mrs.    Ralph  Traut- 

mann,  of  New  York. 
2nd  Vice-President,  Mrs.  Edwin  C  Bur- 

leigh,  of  Maine. 
3rd  Vice-President,  Mrs.  Charles  Price, 

of  North  Carolina. 
4th    Vice-President,   Miss    Katherine  L. 

Minor,  of  Louisiana. 
5th  Vice-President,  Mrs    Beriah  Wilkins, 

of  the  District  of  Columbia. 


Potter  Palmer,  of  Chicago. 

6th  Vice-President,  Mrs.  Susan  R.  Ash- 
ley, of  Colorado. 

7th  Vice-President,  Mrs.  Flora  Beall 
Ginty,  of  Wisconsin. 

8th  Vice-President,  Mrs.  Margaret 
Elaine  Salisbury,  of  Utah. 

Vice-President-at -Large,  Mrs.  Russell  B. 
Harrison,  of  Montana. 

Secretary,  Mrs.  Susan  Gale  Cooke,  of 
Tennessee. 


MANAGERS. 


At  Large. 


Alabama 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut.  .. 

Del  aw. ire 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho  

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts . 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 


Mrs.  D.  F.  Verdenal New  York 

Mrs.  Mary  C.  Cantr.ll Georgetown,    Ky. 

Mrs.  M.  S.  Lockwood  Washington,  D.  C 

Mrs  J.  J.  Bagley Detroit,  Mich. 

Miss  E.  A.  Ford    Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Mrs.  Mary  S.   Harrison Helena,  Montana 

Mrs.  I.  A.  E.Tyler Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Mrs.  Rosine  Ryan Austin,  Tex. 

Miss  H.  T.  Hundley Moresville 

Mrs.  A.  M.  Fosdick Mobile 

Mrs.  J.  P.  Eagle Little  Rock 

Mrs.  R.  A.  Edgerton Little  Rock 

Mrs.  P.  P.  Rue Santa  Rosa 

Mrs.  J.  R.Deane San  Francisco 

Mrs.  R.  J.  Coleman Buena  Vista 

Mrs.  S.  R.  Ashley Denver 

Miss  F.  S.  Ives New  Haven 

Mrs.  I.  B.  Hooker Hartford 

Mrs.  M.    R.  Kinder :Milford 

Mrs.  J.  F.  Ball Wilmington 

Mrs.  M.  C.  Bell Gainesville 

Miss  E.  N.  Beck Tampa 

Mrs.  W.  H.  Felton Cartersville 

Mrs.  C.  H.  Olmsted Savannah 

Mrs.  A.  E.  M.  Farnum Hanser  Junction 

Mrs.  J.  C.  Straughan Biose  City 

Mrs.  R.  J.  Oglesby F.lkhart 

Mrs.  F.  W.  Shephard Chicago 

M iss  W.  R ei tz Evansville 

Mrs.  V.  C.  Meredith Cambridge  City 

Mrs.  W.  S.  Clark I  >es  Moines 

MissO.  E.  Miller Cedar  Rapids 

Mrs.  J.  S.  Mitchell Topeka 

Mrs.  H.  A.  Hanback Topeka 

M  iss  J.  W.   Faulkner I  .ancaster 

Mrs.  A.  C.  Jackson Covington 

Miss  K.  L.  Minor Houma 

Miss  J.  Shakespeare New  Orleans 

Mrs.  E.  C.  Burleigh Augusta 

Mrs.  L.  M.  N.  Stevens Portland 

Mrs.  W.   Reed Baltimore 

Mrs.A.  Thomson Mount  Savage 

Mrs.  J.  H.  French Boston 

Mrs.  Rufus  S.Frost  Chelsea 

Mrs.  E  J.  P.  Howes Battle  Creek 

VI rs.  S.  S.  C.  Angell Ann  Arbor 

Mrs.  F.  B.  Clark St.   Paul 

Mrs.  H.  F.  Brov  n : Minneapolis 

Mrs.  J.  W.  Lee Aberdeen 

Mrs.  J.  M.  Stone Jackson 


391 


STATES. 

MANAGERS. 

. 

Miss  Phoebe  Couzins  

St.  Louis 

Miss  L  M  Brown                         

Kirkwood 

Mrs.  Eliza  Richards  

Butte  City 

Nebraska  j 

Mrs  C     L    McAdow                 

Helena 

Mrs.  J.  S.  Briggs  

Omaha 

Nevada  5 

Mrs.E.  C.  Langworthy  
Miss  E.  M.  Russell  

Seward 
Elko 

Mrs.  M.  B.  F.  Ladd  

Lancaster 

Mrs    D   Hall 

Dover 

Miss  M.  K.  Busselle  

Newark 

New  York  5 

Mrs  M  B.  Stevens           

Hoboken 

Mrs  R  Trautmann 

New  York  City 

Mrs.  G.  W.  Kidder  

Wilmington 

Mrs.  Charles  Price                   

Salisbury 

Mrs.  S.  W.  McLaughlin  

Grand  Forks 

OViin                                                       5 

Mrs  W   B   McConnell  

Fargo 

Mrs.  M.  A.  Hart  

Cincinnati 

Oregon  -  5 

Mrs  \V   Heartpence                        

Harrison 

Mrs.'  E.  W.  Allen  

Portland 

Mrs.  M.  Payton  
Miss  M.  E.  McCandless  

....Salem 
Pittsburg 

Rhode  Island  5 

Mrs.  H  A    Lucas         

Philadelphia 

Mrs.  A.  M.  Starkweather  
Miss  C  F  Dailey             

Pawtucket 
Providence 

Miss  F.  Cunningham  

Charleston 

Mrs  E  M  Brayton 

Columbia 

Mrs.  J.  R.  Wilson  

Dead  wood 

Mrs  H.  M   Barker         

Huron 

Mrs.  L.  Gillespie.  .. 

Nashville 

Texas  j 

Mrs  S  G  Cooke      . 

Knoxville 

Mrs.  M.  A.  Cochran  

Dallas 

Mrs.  I.  L.  Turner  
Mrs.  E  M.  Chandler  

Ft.  Worth 
Pom  fret 

Mrs.  E.  N.  Grinnell    

Burlington 

Mrs.  J.  S.  Wise  

Richmond 

\Vashington     .        < 

Mrs.K.  S.  G.  Paul  
Mrs.  M.  G.  0  wings  

Harrisonburg 
Olympia 

Mrs.  A.  Houghton  
Mrs.  W   N.  Linch  

Spokane  Falls 
M  artinsbnrg 

Mrs   L.I.Jackson  

Parkersburg 

Mrs.  F.  B.  Ginty  

Chippewa  Falls 

Wyoming  j 

Mrs.W.  P.  Lynde      .                  

Milwaukee 

Mrs.  F.  H.  Harrison  

Evanston 

Alaska  j 

Mrs.  F.  E.  Hale  
Mrs.  E  K.  Delaney  

Juneau 

Arizona  j 

Miss  I.  J.  Austin  
Mrs.  I.  J.  Butler  

Sitka 
Prescott 

New  Mexico  i 

Miss  1^.  Lovell.  .. 
Mrs.  F.  L.  Allbright  

Tuscon 
Albuquerque 

Oklahoma      .          ...           ] 

Mrs.  E.  L  Bartlett  
Mrs.  M.  P.  H.  Beeson  

Reno  City 

Utah                                         j 

Mrs.  G.  Guthrie  
Mrs.  T.  A.  Whalen  

Oklahoma  City 
Ogden 

District  of  Columbia  j 

Mrs  M.  B.  Salisbury  
Mrs.  J-  A.  Logan 

Salt  Lake  City 
Washington 

Mrs.  B.  Wilkins  

Washington 

The  officials  who  have  taken  the  most  prominent  part  in 
the  fair  work  are  Director  General  Davis  ;  Daniel  H.  Burn- 
ham,  chief  of  construction  ;  Thomas  W.  Palmer,  president  of 
the  National  Commission  ;  Mrs.  Potter  Palmer,  president  of 
tlie  Board  of  Lady  Managers  ;  Lyman  J.  Gage,  the  first,  and 


392 


H.  N.  Higinbotham  the  last  president  of  the  Local  Board  ; 
C.  C.  Bonney,  president,  and  T.  B.  Bryan,  vice-president  of 
the  World's  Congress  Auxiliary,  and  Moses  P.  Handy,  chief 
of  the  Department  of  Publicity  and  Promotion.  The  fair 
itself  speaks  for  the  work  of  most  of  the  officers,  but  the  labors 
of  Major  Handy  \vere  unique.  His  was  the  duty  to  advertise 
the  fair  at  home  and  abroad,  to  popularize  it,  to  make  success 


Thomas  W.  Palmer. 

possible.  An  old  newspaper  man,  Major  Handy  understood 
the  difficulties  of  the  situation,  organized  his  department  at 
once,  went  over  the  United  States  and  Europe  in  the  interest 
of  the  exposition,  and  everywhere  gave  it  a  definite  status, 
interested  people  of  all  classes  in  the  enterprise,  and  in  no 


393 


small  degree  contributed  to  the  great  world  co-operation  that 
is  making  the  fair  a  success. 

Dr.  T.  W.  Zaremba,  of  Mexico,  proposed,  as  early  as  1876, 
that  an  international  exposition  be  held  in  America  in  1892 
in  honor  of  Columbus'  discovery  of  the  new  world,  and  in  1882 
Dr.  A.  W.  Harlan  revived  the  idea  in  a  letter  printed  in  a  Chi- 
cago newspaper.  Thomas  B.  Bryan,  of  Chicago,  was  the  first 


Moses   P.  Handy. 

man  to  make  an  energetic  fight  to  secure  the  World's  Fair  for 
Chicago,  and  when  the  World's  Fair  Exposition  Company  was 
incorporated  in  1889,  Mr.  Bryan  was  made  chairman  of  the 
committee  on  national  agitation  and  Lyman  J.  Gage  chair- 
man of  the  finance  committee.  In  a  debate  before  a  congress- 
ional sub-committee,  as  to  the  site  for  the  fair,  Mr.  Bryan 


394 


argued  in  Chicago's  behalf,  and  conducted  the  debate  with 
such  masterly  skill  as  to  completely  defeat  Chauncey  M.  Depew, 
who  had  spoken  for  New  York.  Mr.  Bryan  has  thus  been 
identified  with  the  fair  from  the  first,  but  his  greatest  services 
were  his  efforts  to  get  the  exposition  for  Chicago.  The  work 
of  Lyman  J.  Gage  was  also  of  the  highest  value.  His  great 
ability  as  a  financier  helped  to  solve  money  difficulties  and  his 


Thomas   B.  Bryan.       ( 

name  lent  the  enterprise  a  standing  in  all  financial  circles.  At 
the  close  of  his  term  of  office  as  president  of  the  Local  Board, 
Mr.  Gage  refused  the  salary  attaching  to  the  position,  and  also 
the  renomination,  which  was  unanimously  tendered  him. 
Thomas  W.  Palmer  has  served  continuously  as  president  of 
the  National  Commission  and,  like  Mr.  Gage,  has  never 
accepted  any  salary  for  his  services. 

395 


THE   GREAT   BUILDINGS. 

Daniel  Hudson  Burnham,  the  friend  and  partner  of  John 
Wellborn  Root,  built  the  White  City.  In  so  doing  he  has 
marked  himself  not  only  as  a  man  possessed  of  the  very  high- 
est order  of  executive  talent,  but  also  as  one  having  the  high- 
est appreciation  of  every  department  of  art,  learning  and 


Lyman  J.  Gage. 

science.  Immediately  on  being  appointed  as  chief  of  construc- 
tion he  adopted  a  general  plan  for  the  work,  and  assigned  to 
the  most  prominent  architects  of  the  country  the  duty  of 
designing  the  great  buildings  for  the  fair.  The  work  was 
undertaken  in  the  same  generous  spirit  in  which  it  was  given, 
and  only  the  hearty  co-operation  of  America's  leading  archi- 

396 


tects  made  the  great  buildings  a  possibility.  To  Root,  to 
Burnham  and  to  Frederick  Law  Olmstead,  the  landscape 
gardener,  chiefly  belong  the  glory  of  the  artistic  success  of  the 
fair,  as  far  as  buildings  and  grounds  are  concerned. 

The  dimensions  and  cost  of  the  great  exposition  buildings 
are  indicated  in  the  following  table: 


BUILDING. 

Dimen- 
sions in 
feet. 

Area  in 
acres. 

Acreage  of 
floor  space 
including 
galleries. 

COST. 

Manufactures  and  Liberal  Arts  

787x1  687 

30  5 

44 

$1  500  000 

Administration  

262x    262 

1  6 

4  2 

435  000 

Mines  

350x    700 

56 

8.7 

265  000 

Klectricity  

345  x    690 

5  6 

9  7 

401  000 

Transportation  

256x    960 

5  6 

9  4  / 

Annex  

425x    900 

88 

9.2  \ 

370,000 

Woman's  

199x   388 

1  8 

3  3 

138  000 

Art  Galleries  

320x    500 

3  7 

4 

Annexes  (2)  

120x    200 

1  1 

1.1 

670,000 

Fisheries  

1G5X    365 

1.4 

2.4 

Annexes  (2)  

135  diam. 

.8 

.7 

224,000 

Horticulture  

250x    998 

5  7 

6.6 

300000 

Greenhouses  (8)  

24x    100 

5 

.5 

25,000 

Machinery  

492x    846 

9  6 

17.5  ) 

'          Annex  

490x    650 

62 

6.2  ) 

1,200,000 

Power  House,  etc  

lOOx    461  ) 

Pumping  works  

77x     84  > 

2.1 

1.9 

85,000 

'          Machine  shop  

146x    250  1 

Agriculture  

600x    800 

92 

15.    ) 

Annex  

300x    650 

3.8 

3.9) 

618,000 

'          Assembly,  etc  

125x    450 

1  3 

1.9 

100,000 

Forestry... 

208x    328 

2.6 

2.6 

100,000 

Saw  Mill  

125x    300 

.9 

.9 

35,000 

Dairy  ....         .... 

lOOx    200 

.5 

.8 

30,000 

Live  Stock  (3)  

6Sx    200 

.9 

1.2 

"          Pavilion  

250x    440 

2.8 

2.8 

"          Sheds  

40. 

40. 

Casino... 

120x    250 

.7 

.7 

Music  Hall  

120x    250 

.7 

.7 

210,000 

U.  S.  Government  ....           ...            

345x    415 

153.8 
3.3 

199.9 
6.1 

$7,041,000 
400,000 

"     Imitation  Battleship     

69.25X    348 

.3 

.6 

100,000 

Illinois  State  

160x    450 

1.7 

3.2 

250,000 

Wings  (2)  

.3 

159.4 

209.8 

$7,791,000 

The  site  of  the  fair  buildings,  Jackson  Park,  embraces  553 
acres,  with  an  added  area  of  80  acres  in  Midway  Plaisance. 
All  the  buildings,  with  possibly  one  or  two  exceptions,  will  be 
at  once  torn  down  and  removed  on  the  closing  of  the  exposi- 
tion, October  30,  1893.  Lumber,  structural  iron  and  "staff" 
are  the  building  materials  most  used  at  Jackson  Park — over 


397 


75>ooo,ooo  feet  of  lumber  and  20,000  tons  of  iron  being  required 
for  the  work.  Staff  is  a  composition  of  plaster,  cement  and 
hemp  or  similar  fibre.  It  is  lighter  than  wood,  is  fire-proof, 
water-proof,  and,  if  kept  painted,  will  last  for  years. 

The  Agricultural  building  is  located  in  the  south  end  of  the 
grounds,  near  the  lake  shore.  The  rotunda  is  surmounted  by 
a  glass  dome  130  feet  in  height.  Throughout  the  main  vesti- 
bule statuary  has  been  placed,  illustrative  of  the  agricultural 
industry.  South  of  the  Agricultural  building  is  a  spacious 
structure  devoted  chiefly  to  an  assembly  hall  for  conventions 
of  live  stock,  agriculture  and  allied  interests. 

In  the  Agricultural  building  will  be  found,  besides  the  vege- 
table products  of  the  soil,  the  literature  and  statistics  of  agri- 
culture, the  preserved  meats  and  foods  preparations  exhibit, 
pure  and  mineral  waters,  and  the  process  of  bottling  and  stor- 
ing beverages.  McKim,  Mead  &  White,  of  New  York, 
designed  the  building,  and  W.  I.  Buchanan  is  the  chief  of  the 
department. 

South  of  the  Midway  Plaisance  entrance  to  the  park,  and 
facing  the  lagoon,  is  the  Horticultural  building.  The  plan  is  a 
central  pavilion  with  two  wings.  From  the  centre  of  the 
structure  rises  a  crystal  dome  187  feet  in  diameter  and  118 
feet  high,  under  which  are  exhibited  the  tallest  palms,  bam- 
boos and  tree  ferns  that  can  be  procured.  Here  will  be  shown 
flowers,  plants,  vines,  seeds  and  horticultural  implements. 
The  exhibits  requiring  sunlight  will  be  arranged  in  the  wings, 
which  are  almost  entirely  of  glass.  W.  L.  B.  Jenney,  of 
Chicago,  designed  Horticultural  hall,  and  J.  M.  Samuels  and 
John  Thorpe  have  superintended  the  work  of  gathering  the 
exhibit  it  contains. 

The  Fisheries  building,  designed  by  Henry  Ives  Cobb,  is 
one  of  the  most  unique  and  characteristic  structures  of  the 
fair.  There  is  a  circular  main  building  with  two  tank  annexes 
at  either  end,  connected  with  the  central  structure  by  curving 
arcades,  The  whole  building  conforms  itself  to  the  banana- 

398 


shaped  island  on  which  it  is  located.  The  water  capacity  of 
the  aquaria  is  140,000  gallons,  nearly  one-third  of  which  will 
be  devoted  to  salt  wrater  fish.  Captain  J.  W.  Collins  is  chief 
of  the  fisheries  exhibit. 

The  imposing  building  provided  for  the  department  of  min- 
ing, designed  by  S.  S.  Beman,  is  simple  and  straightforward  in 
construction,  with  wide  galleries  and  sweeping  ground  spaces. 
The  principal  fronts  show  enormous  arched  entrances,  richly 
embellished  with  sculptured  decorations,  emblematic  of  min- 
ing and  its  allied  industries.  This  building  contains  everything 
pertaining  to  mines  and  metallurgy.  Fred  J.  V.  Skiff  is  chief 
of  the  department. 

In  Machinery  hall,  Lieutenant  R.  W.  Robinson  has  charge 
of  a  marvellous  exhibit.  The  building,  designed  by  Peabody 
&  Stearns,  of  Boston,  measures  500  by  850  feet,  and  is 
spanned  by  three  arched  trusses.  The  interior  presents  the 
appearance  of  three  railroad  train  houses  side  by  side,  sur- 
rounded on  all  the  four  sides  by  a  gallery  fifty  feet  wide.  The 
trusses  are  built  separately,  so  that  they  can  be  taken  down 
and  utilized.  The  power  for  the  building  is  supplied  from  a 
power  house  adjoining  the  south  side  of  the  building.  The 
floor  area  is  17.5  acres,  an  annex  measuring  490  by  550  feet 
furnishing  6.2  additional  acres.  Adjoining  Machinery  hall  is 
a  machine  shop  146  by  250  feet.  There  is  a  power  house, 
100  by  460  feet.  In  this  structure  are  stationed  the  engines 
for  the  24,000  horse-power  provided  for  the  exposition.  One 
of  these  engines  is  about  twice  the  size  and  power  of  the 
celebrated  Corliss  engine  used  at  the  Centennial  Exposition, 
Philadelphia,  in  1876.  Oil  is  used  for  fuel. 

Transportation  building,  designed  by  Alder  &  Sullivan,  the 
architects  of  the  Auditorium,  is  exquisitely  refined  and  simple 
in  architectural  treatment.  It  is  Romanesque  in  style,  and  the 
main  entrance  consists  of  an  immense  single  arch  enriched 
with  carvings,  bas-reliefs  and  mural  paintings,  the  entire 
feature  forming  a  beautiful  color  climax. 

400 


The  roof  is  in  three  divisions.  The  middle  one  rises  much 
higher  than  the  others,  and  its  walls  are  pierced  to  form  an 
arcaded  clear  story.  The  cupola,  placed  in  the  center  of  the 
building  and  rising  165  feet  above  the  ground,  is  reached  by 
eight  elevators.  These  elevators  naturally  form  a  part  of  the 
transportation  exhibit,  and  as  they  also  carry  passengers  to 
the  various  galleries,  a  fine  view  of  the  interior  of  the  build- 
ing may  easily  be  obtained.  The  main  galleries  of  this  build- 
ing, because  of  the  abundant  elevator  facilities,  prove  very 
accessible  to  visitors. 

The  main  building  measures  960  by  250  feet.  From  this 
extends  westward  to  Stony  Island  avenue  an  enormous  annex, 
covering  about  nine  acres.  This  is  one  story  in  height.  In 
it  may  be  seen  the  more  bulky  exhibits.  Along  the  central 
avenue  of  the  nave  the  visitor  may  see  scores  of  locomotive 
engines  highly  polished,  and  exceedingly  novel.  Willard  A. 
Smith  has  directed  the  collection  of  the  transportation 
exhibit. 

The  Manufactures  and  Liberal  Arts  building,  George  B. 
Post,  architect,  is  the  largest  building  in  the  world.  The  main 
roof  of  iron  and  glass  spreads  its  giant  spans  250  feet  in  air. 
The  galleries,  50  feet  wide,  circle  the  entire  building,  and  pro- 
jecting from  these  main  galleries  are  86  smaller  galleries,  12 
feet  wide,  from  which  visitors  may  survey  the  vast  array  of 
exhibits  on  the  34  acres  of  floor  space  below.  In  the  central 
hall  of  this  building,  which  is  without  a  supporting  pillar  under 
its  roof,  755°°°  persons  could  be  seated,  allowing  each  6 
square  feet  of  space 

Its  unequalled  size  makes  it  one  of  the  architectural  wonders 
of  the  world.  It  is  three  times  larger  than  the  Cathedral  of 
St.  Peter,  in  Rome.  It  is  four  times  larger  than  the  old 
Roman  Colosseum,  which  seated  80,000  persons.  If  the  great 
pyramid  Cheops  could  be  removed  to  Chicago,  it  could  be 
piled  up  in  this  building  with  the  galleries  left  from  which  to 
view  the  stone.  There  are  7,000,000  feet  of  lumber  in  the 

402 


floor,  and  it  required  five  car-loads  of  nails  to  fasten  the  215 
car-loads  of  flooring  to  the  joists.  The  Auditorium  is  the 
most  notable  building  in  Chicago,  but  twenty  such  buildings 
could  be  placed  on  this  floor.  There  are  eleven  acres  of  sky- 
lights and  forty  car-loads  of  glass  in  the  roof.  The  iron  and 
steel  structure  of  this  roof  would  build  two  Brooklyn  bridges, 
while  there  is  in  it  1400  tons  more  metal  than  in  the  Eads 
bridge  at  St.  Louis.  There  are  twenty-two  main  trusses  in 
the  roof  of  the  central  hall,  and  it  required  600  flat  cars  to 
bring  them  from  the  iron  works  to  Chicago.  These  trusses 
are  twice  the  size  of  the  next  largest  in  existence,  which  are 
90  feet  high  and  span  250  feet.  The  latter  are  in  the  Penn- 
sylvania Railroad  depot  at  Jersey  City. 

Here  are  a  few  facts  regarding  the  size  of  the  building  and 
its  various  parts:  Dimensions,  1,687x787  feet;  height  of 
walls,  66  feet;  height  of  four  center  pavilions,  122  feet; 
height  of  four  corner  pavilions,  97  feet  ;  height  of  roof  over 
central  hall,  237.6  feet  ;  height  clear,  from  the  floor,  202.9 
feet  ;  span  of  truss,  382  feet  ;  width  of  truss  at  base,  14  feet  ; 
at  hip,  32  feet  ;  at  apex,  10  feet  ;  weight  of  truss,  300,000 
pounds;  floor  area,  including  galleries,  44  acres;  cost,  $1,700,- 
ooo  ;  material,  17,000,000  feet  of  lumber  ;  12,000,000  pounds 
of  steel  in  trusses  of  central  hall  ;  2,000,000  pounds  of  iron  in 
roof  of  nave.  In  the  gallery  space  of  this  mammoth  struc- 
ture will  be  displayed  the  interesting  and  instructive  exhibit 
of  liberal  arts,  embracing  education,  music,  hygiene,  medi- 
cine and  surgery,  books  and  literature,  engineering  and  archi- 
tecture. James  Allison  and  Selim  B.  Peabody  have  charge 
of  the  show  in  the  manufactures  and  liberal  arts  departments. 

In  the  Electrical  building,  where  Prof.  J.  P.  Barrett,  Chi- 
cago's veteran  electrician,  has  charge,  Architects  Van  Brunt  & 
Howe,  of  Kansas  City,  have  provided  a  structure  especially 
designed  for  illumination  at  night.  There  are  ten  towers  and 
four  domes,  the  tallest  two  towers  being  each  195  feet  high. 
The  floor  area  is  9.7  acres.  A  striking  feature  of  this  build- 

4°3 


ing  is  a  heroic  statue  of  Benjamin  Franklin.  The  exterior  of 
the  building  is  richly  decorated,  and  the  pediments,  friezes, 
panels  and  spandrils  have  received  a  decoration  of  figures  in 
relief,  with  architectural  motifs,  the  general  tendency  of  which 
is  to  illustrate  the  purposes  of  the  building.  The  display  ot 
electricity  and  electrical  appliances  presented  in  this  building 
is  the  most  complete  exhibit  of  the  kind  ever  made. 

C.  B.  Atwood,  designer-in-chief  of  the  construction  depart- 
ment of  the  fair,  conceived  the  palatial  Fine  Arts  building, 
where  Halsey  C.  Ives  has  got  together  many  of  the  great 
paintings  of  the  world.  Unlike  the  other  exposition  buildings, 
the  Art  Palace  is  constructed  of  brick,  covered  with  staff. 
Although  designed  as  a  temporary  structure,  it  is  necessarily 
fire-proof,  the  walls  being  brick,  and  the  roof,  floors  and 
galleries  iron.  The  main  building,  which  is  Ionic  in 
style,  is  entered  by  four  great  portals,  richly  ornamented 
with  architectural  sculpture,  and  approached  by  broad 
flights  of  steps.  The  walls  of  the  loggia  of  the  colonnades 
are  highly  decorated  with  mural  paintings,  illustrating  the 
history  and  progress  of  the  arts.  The  frieze  of  the  exterior 
walls  and  the  pediments  of  the  principal  entrances  are 
ornamented  with  sculptures  and  portraits  in  bas-relief  of  the 
masters  of  ancient  art. 

In  Administration  building,  the  masterly  conception  of 
Richard  M.  Hunt,  are  located  the  offices  of  the  exposition 
management.  This  noble  achievement  of  modern  architecture 
is  universally  admitted  to  be  the  artistic  triumph  of  the  fair. 
Connected  with  the  grand  central  dome,  which  is  coated  with 
aluminium  bronze,  at  a  cost  of  $54,000,  are  four  pavilions, 
four  stories  in  height.  Around  the  base  of  this  dome,  on  the 
corners  of  the  pavilions,  are  groups  of  statuary,  emblematic  of 
art  and  science.  The  general  design  of  -the  building  is  in  the 
style  of  the  French  renaissance.  The  first  story  is  in  the  Doric 
order,  the  second  the  Ionic.  The  interior  of  the  building 
exceeds  in  beauty  and  splendor  even  the  magnificent  exterior. 

404 


Administration  Building. 


The  Government  building,  designed  by  Architect  Windrum, 
does  not  meet  with  the  favor  of  the  critics.  Its  situation  is 
one  of  the  most  delightful  in  the  park.  The  organic  lines  are 
those  of  the  capitol  at  Washington.  Its  central  dome  is  impos- 
ing, but  at  a  distance  is  lost  in  the  magnitude  of  the  structure. 
The  dome  is  purely  Roman  and  suggests  that  of  St. 
Paul's  Cathedral  at  London.  Many  features  of  the  building 
suggest  the  Italian  renaissance.  The  main  and  central  entrances 
follow  that  period  of  architecture.  The  interior,  or  that 
portion  devoted  to  artistic  embellishments,  is  a  comparative 
failure.  The  dome,  or  rotunda,  is  supported  by  columns  of 
vivid  and  shaded  green,  in  imitation  of  marble. 

The  Woman's  building,  designed  by  Sophia  B.  Hayden,  is 
chaste  and  beautiful.  On  the  first  floor  are  located  a  model 
hospital  and  kindergarten,  and  much  space  is  devoted  through- 
out to  reform  and  charity  work.  A  feature  is  the  roof  garden 
and  cafe. 

The  naval  exhibit  may  be  properly  classed  among  the  main 
buildings  of  the  exposition.  It  consists  of  a  structure  that  is 
to  all  outward  appearance  a  full-sized  model  of  one  of  the  new 
coast  line  battle  ships.  It  is  erected  on  piling  on  the  lake 
front  in  the  northeast  portion  of  the  park.  It  is  surrounded  by 
water  and  has  the  appearance  of  being  moored  to  a  wharf. 
The  structure  has  all  the  fittings  that  belong  to  an  actual  ship. 
Its  dimensions  are  as  follows:  Length,  348  feet;  width  amid- 
ships, 69  feet  3  inches;  from  the  main  deck  to  water  line,  12 
feet. 

HOUSES   OF   THE   STATES. 

All  the  states   and   territories  participate  in   the  exposition. 

The  following  thirty-one  states  and  two  territories  have  made 

appropriations  through  their  legislatures: 

Arizona $    30,000 

California 300,000 

Colorada 100,000 

Delaware 10,000 

406 


Carried  forward $  440,000 

Idaho 20,000 

Illinois 800,000 

Indiana 75,°oo 

Iowa 130,000 

Kentucky 100,000 

Louisiana 36,000 

Maine 40,000 

Maryland 60,000 

Massachusetts 150,000 

Michigan 100,000 

Minnesota 50,000 

Missouri 1 50,000 

Montana 50,000 

Nebraska 50,000 

New  Hampshire 25,000 

New  Jersey 70,000 

New  Mexico 25,000 

New  York 300,000 

North  Carolina 25,000 

North  Dakota 25,000 

Ohio 125,000 

Pennsylvania 300,000 

Rhode  Island 50,000 

Vermont ' 15,000 

Virginia 25,000 

Washington 100,000 

West  Virginia 40,000 

W  isconsin 65,000 

Wyoming 30,000 


Total $3,441,000 

These  eight  states  have   raised   funds  by  stock   subscrip- 


tions: 


Alabama $   20,000 

Arkansas 40,000 

Florida 50,000 

Georgia 100,000 

Kansas 100,000 

Oregon 50,000 

South  Dakota 25,000 

Texas 30,000 

Total $41 5,000 

407 


Illinois  furnishes  by  far  the  most  pretentious  of  the  state 
buildings,  and  it  may  be  classed  as  one  of  the  great  exposition 
structures.  The  plan  of  the  building  forms  a  Greek  cross, 
whose  main  axis  is  450  feet  long  by  160  feet  wide,  while  the 
shorter  axis  is  285  feet  long  with  an  average  width  of  98  feet. 
At  the  intersection  of  the  arms  of  the  cross  rises  the  dome, 
with  a  diameter  of  75  feet  at  the  base,  and  a  height  of  1 52  feet  at 
the  top  of  the  inner  dome.  At  the  east  and  west  are  two  large 
entrances,  at  either  side  of  which  are  rooms  extending  the 
entire  width  of  the  building,  and  about  29  feet  deep,  occupying 
the  whole  height,  which  is  divided  into  three  stories.  The 
rooms  at  the  east  end  are  chiefly  used  for  school  exhibition 
purposes,  a  large  one  on  the  ground  floor  being  fitted  up  as  a 
model  kindergarten.  Beyond  this  extends  the  great  exhibition 
hall,  381  feet  long. 

The  design  of  the  Arkansas  building  follows  classic  models, 
it  being  in  the  French  "  Rococo"  style  of  architecture,  as 
Arkansas  was  originally  settled  by  the  French.  The  exterior 
is  in  plaster  and  ornamental  staff  work,  tinted  in  light  color. 
The  interior  is  tinted,  and  the  ornamental  work  is  brought  out 
in  gold.  The  building  has  a  ground  area  of  66  by  92  feet. 
From  a  large  circular  veranda,  which  runs  the  width  of  the 
building,  an  elliptical  entrance  opens  to  the  rotunda,  30  by  30 
feet,  lighted  by  a  central  dome.  In  the  center  of  the  rotunda 
is  a  fountain  of  Hot  Springs  crystals,  lighted  by  electricity. 

Next  to  Illinois  California  shows  the  largest  state  building 
at  the  fair.  Its  dimensions  are  144  by  435  feet.  It  is  in  the 
style  of  architecture  of  the  old  California  mission  buildings. 
The  exterior  is  of  plain  plaster,  artificially  seamed  and  cracked, 
giving  it  the  appearance  of  the  old  mission  buildings,  while 
recessed  entrances  give  the  walls  that  appearance  of  depth 
and  solidity  characteristic  of  the  old  buildings.  The  south 
front  is  a  reproduction  of  the  old  mission  church  at  San 
Diego. 

The  Colorado  building  is  in  the  Spanish  renaissance   style 

408 


of  architecture.  The  whole  exterior  is  in  staff  of  an  ivory 
color,  and  in  the  salient  features  of  the  design  profusely  orna- 
mented, the  ornamentation  comparing  to  fine  advantage  with 
the  broad,  plain  surfaces  of  the  building.  The  striking  feat- 
ure of  the  design  is  two  slender. Spanish  towers,  98  feet  high, 
rising  from  either  side  of  the  main  entrance,  on  the  east. 

Connecticut  shows  a  type  of  the  old  colonial  residence,  with 
circular  windows  and  piazza,  and  Florida's  building  is  a  repro- 
duction of  Fort  Marion,  St.  Augustine.  Indiana's  house  is  in 
the  style  of  a  French  chateau.  Iowa  has  a  corn  palace. 
Kansas  builds  a  typical  house,  and  Maine's  home  is  of  granite 
from  the  sea  coast. 

Massachusetts  reproduces  the  historic  John  Hancock  resi- 
dence, which,  until  the  year  1867,  stood  on  Beacon  Hill, 
Boston,  near  the  state  capitol.  The  building  is  three  stories 
high,  surmounted  in  the  center  by  a  cupola.  The  exterior  is 
of  staff,  in  imitation  of  cut  granite.  It  follows  the  lines  of  the 
old  house  sufficiently  to  recall  the  original  to  the  minds  of 
those  who  have  seen  it.  Like  the  original,  it  is  surrounded 
by  a  terrace,  raised  above  the  street,  and  has  in  front  and  on 
one  side  a  court,  filled  with  old-fashioned  flowers  and  foliage, 
in  keeping  with  the  character  of  the  building. 

Minnesota,  Missouri,  Montana  and  Nebraska  have  erected 
handsome  structures  after  approved  styles  of  architecture. 
The  mountains  of  New  Hampshire  probably  suggested  the 
Swiss  cottage  for  its  club  house.  The  architecture  of  New 
York's  building  is  that  of  a  big  summer  house,  after  the  man- 
ner of  an  Italian  villa.  Among  the  state  buildings  it  ranks  in 
size  next  to  Illinois  and  California.  It  is  three  stories  high, 
being  57  ^eet  from  the  ground  to  the  cornice.  The  exterior 
is  in  staff,  in  imitation  of  marble,  and  in  keeping  with  the  style 
of  the  main  exposition  buildings.  Its  decked  roof  is  sur- 
mounted and  confined  by  a  heavy  balustrade.  Each  pedestal 
of  the  balustrade  supports  a  large  Italian  vase,  in  which  grows 
a  bay-tree,  giving  the  building,  together  with  its  other  char- 

410 


acteristics,  the  air  of  a  Pompeiian  house.  On  the  north  and 
south  ends  of  the  building  are  circular  porticoes,  in  each  of 
which  is  a  fountain.  The  general  dimensions  are  160  feet 
front  by  105  feet  deep.  A  broad  flight  of  steps,  guarded  by 
Roman  lions,  leads  to  the  arched  entrance. 

Ohio  shows  a  colonial  house,  and  Pennsylvania's  home  is  an 
exact  reproduction  of  old  Independence  Hall,  having  its 
entrances,  bell-tower,  and  spire.  The  famous  independence 
bell  hangs  in  the  tower.  The  rotunda  within  the  entrance  is 
finished  in  tile  and  slate,  like  the  old  hall.  The  building  is 
rectangular  in  form,  two  stories  high,  with  a  ground  area  of  1 10 
by  1 66  feet.  Piazzas  20  feet  wide  surround  the  building,  and 
over  them  are  verandas,  with  protecting  balustrade.  Outside 
staircases,  right  and  left  to  the  rear,  lead  to  the  garden  on  the 
roof.  The  outer  walls  to  the  roof  line  are  of  Philadelphia 
pressed  brick.  Above  the  main  entrance  is  the  coat  of  arms  of 
the  state,  in  bas-relief,  and  on  either  side  of  it  are  heroic 
statues  of  Penn  and  Franklin. 

Rhode  Island,  South  Dakota,  Utah,  Washington  and  West 
Virginia  have  characteristic  houses.  Wisconsin's  house  is  of 
native  marble. 

In  all,  there  are  over  400  separate  structures  on  the  fair 
grounds,  exclusive  of  booths,  and  there  are  200  acres  under 
roof,  150  of  which  belong  to  exposition  buildings  proper,  the 
other  50  acres  to  concession  buildings. 

FINE   ARTS   AT  THE   FAIR. 

The  fine  art  collection  at  the  fair  not  only  far  surpasses 
every  former  American  exhibition  of  the  kind,  but  equals  the 
European  standard  of  such  exhibitions.  There  are  several 
reasons  for  this.  The  amount  of  space  granted  to  the  artists 
of  the  world  is  but  a  fraction  of  what  they  desired  and 
asked  for — but  this  limitation  of  space  has  very  largely 
enhanced  the  standard  of  excellence.  It  is  no  disparagement 

411 


of  the  10,000  works  of  art  to  say  that  they  have  been  rejected 
by  the  World's  Fair  juries  of  selection.  The  works  of  art 
selected  are  representative.  They  are  as  numerous  as  such 
broad  representation  of  the  thousands  of  the  world's  artists 
made  possible.  Another  reason  is  that  there  is  a  better  repre- 
sentation from  a  greater  number  of  nations  than  has  ever 
been  brought  together  at  any  previous  exposition.  The 
responses  from  foreign  governments  and  the  enthusiasm  of 
foreign  artists,  when  the  World's  Fair  art  exhibit  was  thrown 
open  to  them,  far  exceeded  the  most  sanguine  predictions  of 
two  years  ago.  World's  Fair  visitors  will  therefore  see  not 
only  a  great  exhibit  of  American  art,  but  the  choicest  produc- 
tions of  the  world's  great  masters  from  across  the  sea. 

The  broad  lines  upon  which  the  fine  arts  exhibit  has  been 
planned  will  dispel  the  impression  that  statuary,  oil  and  water 
colors  finish  the  category  of  fine  arts.  The  application  of 
sculpture  to  architecture  is  illustrated  on  a  scale  that  will  create 
admiration,  and  must  prove  educative  to  builders  in  this  era 
of  advanced  architecture.  The  World's  Fair  fine  arts  exhibit 
of  paintings  is  representative  of  all  the  different  schools. 
Lovers  of  the  finesse  in  the  French  school  will  see  master- 
pieces by  acknowledged  leaders.  The  famous  Dutch  school, 
the  Russian,  the  less  known  but  powerful  Scandinavian,  the 
impressionist,  and  many  others,  will  be  represented  by  a 
selection  of  the  choicest  productions  from  leaders.  A  critical 
study  of  American  art  will  not  show  characteristics  of  each  of 
the  foreign  schools,  but  distinct  individuality.  The  American 
section  of  the  fine  art  exhibit  will  contain  between  1500  and 
2000  pieces,  while  Germany  contributes  900  pieces,  France 
800,  Dutch  artists  300,  England  600,  Austria  300,  Denmark 
250,  Sweden  200,  Italy  600,  Norway  180  and  Belgium  400. 

Foreign  governments  take  care  of  the  selection,  installation 
and  insurance  of  the  exhibits  from  their  own  artists.  The 
American  artist  exhibitors  insure  their  own  works.  In  the 
case  of  valuable  loan  collections  from  private  galleries,  the 

412 


exposition  company  carries  the  insurance.  It  were  idle  to 
speculate  as  to  the  monetary  value  of  the  art  collections. 
Three  paintings  alone  have  been  insured  for  $107,000,  and 
the  commercial  value  of  one  painting  is  placed  at  $70,000. 
There  are,  of  course,  hundreds  of  paintings  that  are  not  for 
sale  at  any  price. 

Germany,  France,  England,  Holland,  Belgium,  Norway, 
Sweden,  Denmark,  Russia,  Poland,  Austria,  Austria-Hun- 
gary, Italy  and  Spain,  applied  for  300,000  square  feet  of  wall 
space  at  the  World's  Fair,  but  the  total  wall  space  in  the  art 
galleries  amount  to  only  200,000  square  feet.  After  reserving 
35,000  square  feet  to  American  art,  Chief  Ives  had  165,000 
square  feet  of  wall  space  to  give  foreign  countries.  Although 
little  more  than  half  what  they  asked  for,  this  space  is  still 
more  than  double  the  foreign  space  in  the  Centennial  art 
galleries  of  1876. 

The  countries  represented  officially  in  the  exhibit  are 
Germany,  France,  Great  Britain,  Austria,  Spain,  Italy,  Bel- 
gium, Holland,  Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark,  Russia,  Canada, 
Mexico  and  Japan.  Next  to  the  United  States  comes  France 
with  29,201  square  feet,  then  Germany,  Great  Britain,  Italy, 
Belgium,  Austria,  and  so  on  down  to  Mexico,  which  received 
all  it  asked  for — 1,500  square  feet.  In  previous  art  exposi- 
tions, French  art  has  been  poorly  represented  when  the  exposi- 
tion was  held  in  Germany,  and  the  Germans  have  withheld 
their  art  works  when  the  exposition  wras  held  in  France,  but 
at  Jackson  Park  there  is  nothing  to  interfere  with  a  broadly 
representative  foreign  exhibit.  Each  of  the  foreign  govern- 
ments appointed  its  own  art  commission.  In  France,  M. 
Proust,  who  was  minister  of  fine  arts  under  the  Gambetta 
regime,  headed  the  commission.  II.  W.  Mesdag,  the 
famous  painter,  headed  the  art  commission  for  the  Nether- 
lands. For  England  the  Royal  Society  of  Arts,  headed  by 
Sir  Frederick  Leigh  ton,  president  of  the  royal  academy, 
undertook  the  World's  Fair  exhibit.  The  German  cominis- 


414 


sion  is  headed  by  Herr  Schnars-Alquist,  the  Belgium  com- 
mission by  Professor  Ernest  Slingeneyer,  the  Italian  commis- 
sion by  Signer  Giulio  Monteverde,  the  eminent  sculptor. 
These  commissions,  in  securing  work  by  the  leading  European 
artists  for  the  World's  Fair,  have  had  a  dual  success.  Not 
alone  the  glory  of  achievement  in  a  special  school,  or  in  a  spe- 
cial line  of  art,  has  induced  the  foreign  artists  to  send  their 
best  works.  There  is  the  ever  present  knowledge  that  within 
recent  years  the  United  States  has  become  the  greatest  art 
market  in  the  world  and  that  the  purchasing  power  of  Amer- 
ican art  patrons  seems  illimitable. 

In  securing  a  good  representation  of  American  art,  advisory 
committees  were  appointed  in  the  leading  art  centers  of  the 
United  States  and  in  European  centers  where  American  art 
colonies  flourished.  By  an  interchange  of  service,  these 
advisory  committees  became  juries  of  selection.  For  a  special 
exhibition  of  retrospective  American  art,  a  committee  was 
appointed  to  solicit  from  private  American  owners  and 
societies  a  loan  collection  that  would  best  exhibit  historical  art 
in  America.  This  committee  has  selected  about  a  hundred 
pieces  that  will  be  hung  together  in  one  of  the  galleries.  The 
collection  will  show  the  work  of  native  artists  from  the  earliest 
known  specimens  down  to  1867. 

One  of  the  special  noteworthy  foreign  exhibits  is  a  col- 
lection of  casts  duplicating  productions  of  monumental  works 
shown  in  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Sculpture  in  the  palace 
of  Trocadero,  Paris.  This  illustrates  the  history  of  French 
sculpture,  and  the  development  of  fine  arts  in  France  in 
medieval  and  later  times.  There  is  also  a  collection  of  casts 
from  ancient  Greek  sculpture,  which  has  been  sent  as  a 
special  art  exhibit  by  the  Greek  government.  There  is  a  loan 
collection  of  150  foreign  masterpieces,  owned  in  America, 
which  are  hung  in  three  adjoining  galleries  in  the  west  end  of 
the  east  pavilion.  These  are  all  the  property  of  American  col- 
lectors. They  include  all  the  illustrious  names  among  artists, 

416 


from  the  dawn  of  this  century  to  the  present  time.  From 
Boston  and  San  Francisco,  from  New  York,  Chicago,  Phila- 
delphia and  other  centers,  these  pictures  come.  Millet,  Rosa 
Bonheur,  Carolus-Doran,  John  Constable,  Millais,  Meissonier, 
Alma  Tadema  and  a  score  of  other  famous  names  are  rep- 
resented. There  are  also  figures  and  groups  in  marble,  casts 
from  original  works  by  modern  artists,  models,  monumental 
decorations,  figures  and  groups  in  bronze  and  bas-reliefs  in 
marble  and  bronze. 

The  lighting  arrangements  of  the  galleries  are  well  nigh 
faultless.  All  the  pavilions,  including  rotundas,  courts  and 
galleries,  are  lighted  from  above.  The  modulation  of  natural 
light  in  the  day-time  is  simple  and  effective.  The  system  of 
artificial  lighting  at  night  will  in  itself  be  a  work  of  art. 
Myriads  of  incandescent  lamps  will  shed  a  mellow  radiance 
over  courts  and  galleries.  The  electric  lamps  are  arranged 
in  clusters  above  each  court,  and  also  in  continuous  rows 
around  the  galleries.  The  attractiveness  of  the  art  galleries 
at  night  will  be  one  of  the  features  of  the  exposition. 

FOREIGN   PARTICIPATION. 

The  lake  shore,  north  of  the  big  pier  at  Jackson  Park,  is 
studded  with  a  number  of  beautiful  buildings,  the  houses  of 
the  foreign  nations  represented  at  the  fair.  Interest  in  the 
exposition  is  general  throughout  the  world.  Appropriations 
by  various  countries  amount  to  $6,589,779?  as  follows: 


Argentine  Republic $100,000 

Austria 200,000 

Belgium 57,900 

Bolivia 30,700 

Brazil 600,000 

Colombia  ItO.OOO 

Costa  Rica 150,ooo 

Denmark 67,000 

Danish  West  Indies 1,200 

Ecuador 125,000 

France 733,400 

Germany 820,000 

Great  Britain 291,'J90 

27 

4*7 


Hawaii $40,000 

Hayti 25,000 

Honduras  20,000 

Italy 35,000 

Japan 63^,765 

Liberia 7,000 

Mexico 150,000 

Morocco '.  150,000 

Netherlands 100,000 

Dutch  Guiana 10,000 

Dutch  West  Indies 5,000 

Nicaragua 31,000 

Norway 56,280 


Barbadoes 5,840 

Bermuda ,. 2,920 

British  Guiana 25,000 

British  Honduras 7,500 

Canada 100,000 

Cape  Colony • 50,000 

Ceylon 65,600 

India 30,000 

Jamaica 24,333 

Leeward  Islands 6,000 

New  South  Wales 243,325 

New  Zealand 27,500 

Tasmania 10,000 

Trinidad 20,000 

Greece 57,900 


Orange  Free  State 7,500 

Paraguay 100,000 

Peru 140,000 

Russia 400,000 

Salvador 12,500 

San  Domingo 25,000 

Spain 214,000 

Cuba 25,000 

Switzerland   23,160 

Sweden   108,000 

Turkey 17,466 

Uruguay 24,000 

Venezuela 30,000 

Total $6,589,779 


Guatemala 200,000 

In  all,  50  foreign  nations  and  37  colonies  take  part  in  the 
exposition.  Germany,  France,  Spain,  Russia  and  Japan  make 
the  finest  displays.  Germany's  building  is  a  work  of  the  high- 
est art.  It  is  executed  in  polished  woods,  with  a  wealth  of  the 
most  costly  stained  glass,  and  each  detail  worked  out  with  the 
elaborateness  and  thoroughness  characteristic  of  this  govern- 
ment. The  exterior  decorations  are  equaled  only  by  the 
interior,  and  the  stately  edifice,  with  its  sightly  turrets  and 
graceful  roof,  will  be  a  mecca  for  visitors.  It  is  the  costliest 
and  generally  conceded  to  be  the  finest  foreign  building  on 
the  grounds.  In  its  dome  the  Society  of  Bochum  have  hung 
a  chime  of  bells,  intended,  after  the  fair,  for  the  use  of  the 
Cathedral  of  Mercy  at  Berlin.  These  bells  are  masterpieces 
of  the  German  art  of  bronze  founding.  The  walls  of  the 
building  are  partly  of  stone  and  partly  of  plaster  and  are 
elaborately  decorated  and  painted  with  the  escutcheons  of 
the  states  of  united  Germany.  In  the  Manufactures  building 
2500  exhibitors  are  representing  Germany,  especially  in 
drugs,  pottery,  jewelry,  glass,  laces  and  musical  instruments. 
The  great  Krupp  gun  exhibit  is  in  a  detached  building,  and, 
in  addition  to  a  monster  1 27-ton  gun — the  largest  gun  in  the 
world — Krupp  shows  smaller  guns,  armor  plates,  shells, 
etc.  The  Krupp  exhibit  is  one  of  the  finest  on  the  grounds 
and  represents  an  outlay  of  half  a  million  dollars.  The  Ger- 
man electricians — 30  strong — have  a  splendid  exhibit,  in- 

418 


eluding  a  looo-horse  power  dynamo,  enormous  search  lights, 
motors  and  instruments  of  applied  science.  The  German  mines 
are  represented  by  selected  ores  forming  the  great  Branden- 
burg gate,  and  by  another  exhibit  showing  a  mine  in  detail, 
including  smelters  and  all  mining  machinery.  The  German 
women,  under  the  Empress  Frederick,  have  shown  great 
interest  in  the  fair  and  have  sent  a  fine  collection  of  paintings, 
embroideries,  laces,  carvings,  and  illustrations  of  activity  in 
educational  and  charitable  matters.  In  the  fine  arts,  trans- 
portation and  horticultural  lines  the  German  display  is  com- 
plete and  excellent. 


Germany's  Building. 

Spain  naturally  takes  a  prominent  place  in  a  Columbus 
exposition.  Its  gorgeous  building  will  contain  an  exhibition 
which  promises  to  be  unique  as  well  as  interestingly  beautiful. 
The  Columbus  exposition  held  in  Spain  last  year  has  given  up 
all  its  treasures  to  make  the  show  complete.  Convents  and 
monasteries  have  been  pillaged  in  a  friendly  way  and  their 
treasures  brought  into  the  glaring  light  of  a  World's  Fair.  The 
forest  and  the  field  will  add  their  quota  to  the  list.  Historic 


419 


relics  from  a  land  teeming  with  romance  will  add  a  charm  to 
the  Spanish  building.  The  latter  itself  is  a  poem  in  architect- 
ure and  is  a  reproduction  of  the  exchange  at  Valencia. 

France  sends  the  finest  display  the  nation  has  ever  shown 
outside  its  own  borders.  The  surpassing  exhibit  in  the  Manu- 
factures building  will  not  overshadow  the  gay  array  of  rich  and 
rare  gems  in  the  white  building  by  the  lake.  Here  all  that  is 
delicate  and  artistic,  all  that  is  characteristic  of  La  Belle 
France,  will  be  displayed  before  those  who  have  an  eye  for 
beauty  in  utility.  It  is  said  that  there  is  a  reason  below  the 
surface  for  this  magnificent  display.  France's  old  foe  on  the 


British  Building. 

battlefield  and  rival  in  arts  and   manufactures,  Germany,  is 
across  the  way  with  another  brilliant  display. 

Italy,  the  land  of  olives,  claims  Columbus  as  a  son,  and 
therefore  she  has  resolved  to  do  him  honor  in  the  most  beauti- 
ful way.  Italy  is  rich  in  treasures  of  art,  and  many  of 


these  are  shown  in  the  building  set  apart  for  them.  The  sub- 
jects of  King  Humbert  have  been  tardy  in  exhibiting,  but  their 
display  will  not  lack  anything  by  delay.  The  silver  workers, 


420 


the  wood-carvers,  the  bronze-casters  and  the  cameo-cutters 
will  exhibit  superb  specimens  of  their  handiwork. 

The  English  display  is  not  as  extensive  as  it  might  be,  but 
endeavors  to  show  that  England  is  still  supreme  in  certain 
branches  of  manufactures.  The  Victoria  house,  standing  on  the 
edge  of  the  lake,  is  meant  for  an  exhibition  of  such  furniture  as 
one  finds  in  typical  English  homes.  It  needs  only  the  shady  elms, 
the  long  avenue  of  beeches,  a  well-kept  lawn  with  stretching 
fields  to  make  it  look  like  an  English  country  house.  In  all 
the  departments  English  exhibitors  are  well  represented. 

Japan's  quaint  little  national  houses  are  located  on  Wooded 
Island,  in  the  lagoon,  between  Manufactures  building  and 
Horticultural  hall.  They  are  the  only  buildings  that  will  be 
allowed  to  stand  in  the  park  after  the  fair,  save  perhaps  the 
palace  of  Fine  Arts.  Russia,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Austria, 
Switzerland,  Greece,  Bulgaria,  Belgium,  Holland  and  numer- 
ous other  countries  make  splendid  showings,  both  as  nations 
and  through  their  individual  exhibitors.  Canada,  Brazil, 
Mexico  and  the  South  American  countries  are  all  excellently 
represented. 

MIDWAY    PLAISANCE. 

The  Midway  Plaisance  is  the  overflow  from  the  regular 
fair  grounds  in  Jackson  Park.  It  is  a  strip  of  land  600 
feet  wide,  almost  a  mile  long,  and  connects  Jackson  with 
Washington  Park.  In  the  plaisance  are  located  all  the 
amusements  and  attractions  outside  of  the  exposition 
proper.  In  all,  about  40  shows  occupy  the  80  acres  of  the 
plaisance.  People  from  all  the  corners  and  ends  of  the  earth 
will  meet,  exhibiting  the  characteristic  manufactures  and  pro- 
ducts of  their  distant  homes,  and  their  social,  religious,  domes- 
tic and  business  customs.  As  the  more  advanced  nations  are 
represented  in  the  main  exposition  buildings,  it  has  remained 
for  exhibitors  in  the  plaisance  to  show  in  miniature  the  life  of 
many  parts  of  the  world  about  which  little  is  practically  known 

421 


in  America.  This  plaisance  will  be  over  a  mile  of  wonders  to 
the  simply  curious,  an  inexhaustible  field  for  the  student  of 
sociology,  and  the  most  fascinating  resort  for  thousands  of 
visitors  every  day  during  the  great  fair. 

Among  the  shows  to  interest  the  visitors  will  be  the 
German  village;  the  Austrian  village;  Bohemian  glass  fac- 
tory; Dahomey  village,  with  sixty  native  warriors  of  both 
sexes;  the  captive  balloon,  which  carries  twenty  people  to  a 
height  of  1 500  feet ;  the  ice  railway,  practically  a  toboggan 
slide  of  artificial  ice ;  international  beauty  show,  represented 
by  women  of  various  nations,  wearing  native  costumes  and 
busied  with  the  occupations  of  their  ordinary  home  life;  the 
Japanese  bazaar,  with  its  peculiar  fire  department;  the 
panoramas  of  the  volcano  Kilauea,  and  of  the  Bernese  Alps; 
a  Chinese  village,  with  a  native  theatre  and  200  native  artists; 
the  Hungarian  dance  hall,  theatre  and  cafe ;  Lapland  village ; 
original  model  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome;  model  of  the  Eiffel 
tower;  Moorish  labyrinth;  the  Turkish  village,  with  horses 
from  the  Sultan's  stables;  the  Barre  Sliding  railway,  run  by 
water  power;  natatorium;and  the  great  Hagenbeck  animal 
show  from  Hamburg.  This  exhibit  consists  of  trained  animals, 
including  lions,  tigers,  dogs,  cattle,  horses,  elephants,  bears, 
etc.,  all  of  which  go  through  various  performances  \vhich 
exemplify  wonderful  results  in  scientific  training.  In  addition 
to  the  other  animals,  there  are  200  monkeys  and  1000  parrots. 
The  animal  pavilion  seats  5000  persons. 

The  German  village  consists  of  a  group  of  houses  represent- 
ative of  a  German  village  of  the  present  time,  and,  in  con- 
nection with  this,  a  German  town  of  mediaeval  times.  There 
are  the  houses  of  the  Upper  Bavarian  mountains,  the  houses 
of  the  Black  Forest,  a  Westphalian  farm  house  and  other 
typical  scenes  of  German  home  life  of  various  times  and 
districts.  In  these  houses  is  installed  original  household 
furniture,  so  characteristic  as  to  be  readily  distinguished  as 
belonging  to  particular  classes.  There  are  thirty-six  different 

422 


buildings,  all  distinctively  German.  Emperor  William  gave 
his  sanction  for  their  construction,  and  also  granted  the  pro- 
moters the  privilege  of  recruiting  two  military  bands  from  the 
German  army.  Besides  the  village  there  is  a  reproduction  of 
a  country  fair,  two  German  restaurants,  a  German  concert  gar- 
den, a  water  tower,  and  an  ethnological  museum.  In  the 
center  is  a  castle,  sixteenth  century  style,  with  moat  and  pali- 
sades. Inside  this  castle  will  be  found  the  most  famous  col- 
lection of  weapons  in  Germany.  There  are  sixty  iron  dum- 
mies in  uniform  and  equipment,  giving  a  complete  and  true 
picture  of  the  weapons  and  armor  of  Germany. 

The  town  hall  of  the  village  will  be  used  as  a  museum. 
Goods  will  be  shown  and  sold  in  the  village  market  place.  In 
the  concert  garden,  two  military  bands  will  furnish  the  music. 
These  are  composed  of  forty  people  from  the  Garde  regiment 
and  twenty-six  from  the  Garde  du  Corps. 

The  street  in  Cairo  is  next  to  the  German  village,  and  will 
undoubtedly  be  one  of  the  most  entertaining  and  instructive 
shows  on  the  plaisance.  The  street  is  lined  with  mosques, 
dance  halls,  and  shops  filled  with  wares  from  Arabia  and  the 
Soudan.  There  are  many  famous  curiosities  from  the 
museums  in  Cairo  and  Alexandria  in  a  special  museum. 
Dogs  and  children  and  the  general  appearance  will  all  remind 
the  visitor  of  a  street  in  Cairo,  and  fortune-tellers  will  be  on 
hand. 

The  Irish  village,  just  west  of  the  glass  exhibit,  is  intended 
principally  for  the  sale  of  Irish  laces  and  linens.  These  will 
be  made  by  Irish  women  and  exhibited  in  the  building  so  the 
visitor  may  see  for  himself  just  how  the  famous  Irish  goods 
are  made.  The  intention  is  to  represent  a  perfect  model  of 
the  ancient  Castle  of  Donegal,  famous  in  song  and  story,  refit- 
ting some  of  the  rooms  in  appropriate  style  to  contain  the 
exhibit.  Besides  the  lace  makers,  there  will  be  Irish  girls  spin- 
ning, weaving  and  making  wool  and  butter. 

The  so-called  Javanese  exhibit — both  people  and  things — 

424 


come  from  the  Fiji,  Philippine,  and  Solomon  Islands,  Samoa, 
Java,  Borneo,  New  Zealand,  and  the  Polynesian  Archipelago. 
Among  other  features  of  this  exhibit  will  be  a  building  sixty 
feet  long,  in  which  the  people  from  the  Philippine  Islands  will 
be  employed  in  making  cigars  and  peculiar  kinds  of  cloth.  A 
theater  with  dancing  girls  will  be  one  of  the  shows.  The 
Javanese  inclosure  and  buildings  are  made  of  bamboo.  All 
the  houses  were  built  in  Java  and  had  been  left  standing  until 
the  ship  for  Chicago  was  ready  to  sail.  This  village  was  got- 
ten up  by  a  syndicate  of  Dutch  merchants.  The  great  event 
in  its  history  will  be  the  visit  of  the  Sultan  of  Johore,  who  will 
come  to  the  fair  during  the  month  of  July,  with  his  suite  of 
native  Rajahs. 

The  Ferris  wheel  is  an  exhibit  in  itself.  It  is  250  feet  in 
diameter,  is  swung  on  a  56-ton  axle  which  is  36  inches  in  diam- 
eter, 45  feet  long  and  is  the  largest  piece  of  steel  ever  forged. 
It  rests  on  steel  towers  137  feet  high  and  will  be  revolved 
perpendicularly  by  a  2OOO-horse  power  engine.  On  its 
perimeter  will  be  hung  36  cars,  each  of  which  will  hold  60 
persons.  On  it  3000  incandescent  lights  will  be  used.  The 
weight  of  the  wheel  complete  is  2300  tons. 

The  end  of  the  plaisance  is  devoted  to  an  encampment  for 
soldiers  and  for  military  display.  In  the  plaisance  also  are 
located  divisions  of  the  police  and  fire  departments. 

THE   EXHIBITS. 

The  interior  view  of  the  great  Manufactures  building  is 
like  a  glimpse  of  wonderland.  In  the  center  of  the 
building  rises  a  clock  tower  135  feet,  from  which  float 
the  sweetest  peals  of  chimes  to  mark  the  passing  hours. 
Around  this  clock  tower  are  quartered  the  exhibits  from  the 
United  States,  France,  Germany,  Great  Britain  and  the  other 
great  powers  of  the  earth.  Beyond  lie  exhibits  not  nation- 
alized. France  has  a  pavilion  in  this  building,  but  neither  the 
United  States  nor  Great  Britain  are  so  represented.  The  Ger- 

426 


man  pavilion  is  the  most  beautiful  thing  in  the  great  hall.  Its 
corner  entrance,  facing  the  clock  tower,  is  flanked  by  two 
monumental  towers  sixty  feet  high  and  surmounted  by  golden 
eagles,  which  arrest  the  attention  even  from  a  distance.  But 
its  most  striking  feature  is  the  three  ornamented  iron  gates, 
thirty  feet  high,  in  the  center  of  the  east  front,  which  are  cer- 
tainly marvels  in  that  line  of  art.  There  are  also  canopies, 
vestibules,  colonnades,  arches,  statuary,  painting,  gilding,  and 
marble  work  almost  without  end.  In  general,  the  articles  in 
the  Manufactures  building  are  divided  into  35  groups,  400 
classes,  and  various  sub-classes.  All  smaller  manufactured 
articles  not  otherwise  provided  for  are  to  be  seen  in  this  build- 
ing. In  the  gallery  of  the  Manufactures  building  are  the 
exhibits  of  the  department  of  liberal  arts,  chiefly  educational 
and  natural  history  exhibits.  The  department  of  Ethnology 
and  Archaeology  is  housed  in  a  special  building.  Native 
American,  Greek,  Roman,  Assyrian  and  Egyptian  archasolog- 
ical  exhibits  are  remarkably  full.  Collections  are  also  seen 
from  British  Guiana,  Africa,  the  West  Indies,  Mexico,  Brazil, 
Paraguay,  Honduras  and  various  other  places.  Russia  has  a 
complete  exhibit  of  customs  and  costumes  of  the  Slavic  races. 
The  folk-lore  division  pays  great  attention  to  the  evolution  of 
modern  games  from  those  of  barbarous  races.  The  most 
interesting  ethnological  exhibit  is  made  by  the  various  tribes 
of  North  American  Indians,  including  the  Navajos,  Apaches, 
Blackfeet,  Flatheads,  Penobscots,  Sioux,  Winnebagoes,  Sen- 
ecas,  Mohawks,  Iroquois  and  various  other  tribes.  There  are 
also  cliff  dwellers,  Peruvian  mummies,  Esquimaux  and  Indians 
from  the  far  north. 

The  department  of  mines  presents  an  exhibit  that  is  remark- 
able for  its  fullness  and  detail.  The  classification  includes 
twenty-eight  groups,  embracing  minerals,  ores,  native  metals, 
gems,  crystals  and  geological  specimens;  mineral  combus- 
tibles, oils,  natural  gas;  building,  grinding  and  polishing  stone, 
graphites,  asbestos,  limestones,  salts,  fertilizers,  pigments, 

427 


mineral  waters,  aluminum,  tin,  zinc,  cobalt,  antimony,  arsenic, 
alloys  and  amalgams.  All  the  processes  for  the  extraction  of 
the  metals  are  shown,  with  practical  illustrations  in  assaying. 
There  are  also  miniature  mining  plants,  with  all  the  tools  for 
boring,  lighting,  ventilation,  hoisting,  crushing,  pulverizing, 
timbering.  The  history  of  mining  and  the  literature  of  the 
industry  are  offered  with  great  completeness,  while  models  of 
early  mining  are  shown  in  contrast  to  the  improved  machinery 
of  to-day. 

The  electrical  display  is  one  of  dazzling  brilliancy.  Amer- 
ica leads  in  the  extent  of  her  exhibit,  but  France  and  Germany 
excel  in  the  excellence  of  hand-made  machinery.  All  the 
myriad  phenomena  of  electricity  and  magnetism  will  be  repre- 
sented, including  the  electric  telegraph,  signals  and  cables; 
dynamical  electricity,  batteries,  machines  for  the  generation  of 
electricity;  appliances  for  the  measurement  of  the  force;  for 
the  transmission  and  storage;  motors;  telephones,  phono- 
graphs, telautographs,  kinetographs;  plants  for  furnishing 
heat,  power  and  light;  appliances  for  use  in  surgical  and 
dental  work  and  in  therapeutics;  appliances  that  will  relieve 
pain  and  others  that  will  destroy  life;  appliances  for 
use  in  chemistry,  metalling,  and  kindred  sciences;  instru- 
ments for  taking  photographs  of  objects  hundreds  of  miles 
away.  The  lighting  of  the  grounds  will  in  itself  be  the  great 
electrical  exhibit.  Of  the  24,ooo-horse  power  furnished  for 
the  exposition,  17,000  is  used  for  electricity.  In  all,  there  are 
2877  arc  lights  in  the  main  buildings,  and  56,622  incandescent 
lamps  on  all  the  grounds. 

In  Transportation  building,  the  locomotive  supply,  especially 
the  foreign  one,  is  full  and  interesting.  Every  type  of  engine 
and  car,  now  or  formerly  in  use,  is  shown  here.  The  exhibit 
includes  street  cars,  vehicles  for  common  roads,  vessels, 
aerial,  pneumatic  and  other  forms  of  locomotion,  and  also 
models  of  the  methods  of  naval  warfare  and  coast  defence. 

In  the  Woman's  building  there  is  a  model  kindergarten,  a 

428 


kitchen  in  which  the  latest  methods  of  cooking  are  illustrated, 
and  a  magnificent  collection  of  the  work  of  women  the  world 
over. 

The  most  striking  feature  of  the  Fisheries  building  is  the 
exhibit  made  by  the  United  States  Fish  Commission.  One 
entire  section  of  the  building  is  given  up  to  their  aquaria,  and 
in  them  are  shown  almost  every  species  of  salt  and  fresh 
water  fish.  In  the  main  building  the  great  sea-coast  nations 
of  the  world  make  exhaustive  exhibits  of  the  products  of  their 
fisheries.  Models  of  fishing  fleets  at  their  work  and  speci- 
mens of  all  manner  of  fish  tackle  and  traps  are  also  dis- 
played. 

In  Machinery  hall  the  great  Allis  engine  is  the  chief 
attraction.  While  this  engine  is  larger  by  many  thousand 
horse  power  than  that  which  furnished  the  motive  power  for 
the  entire  machinery  at  the  Centennial  Exposition,  it  is  only 
one  of  nearly  50  of  the  great  machines  which  drive  the  many 
wheels  of  the  World's  Fair. 

The  crowning  glory  of  the  fair  is  the  view  from  the  east 
front  of  the  magnificent  gilt-domed  Administration  building. 
Directly  in  front  is  the  beautiful  McMonnies  fountain,  on  either 
side  of  wrhich  are  electric  fountains,  throwing  prismatic  streams 
150  feet  high.  Then  the  grand  basin,  dotted  with  electric 
launches  and  gay  gondolas,  flanked  by  patches  of  green-sward, 
and  rows  of  great  figures  of  animals.  At  the  farther  end  of 
the  basin  stands  French's  golden  statue  of  the  Republic;  on 
either  side  are  the  Manufactures  and  Agricultural  buildings, 
the  latter  surmounted  by  the  beautiful  Diana;  beyond  all  these 
the  white  peristyle,  its  columns  supporting  heroic  statues 
and  flanked  on  either  side  by  the  Casino  and  the  Music  hall, 
and  then,  last  of  all,  the  great  blue  lake  melting  in  the  distance 
with  the  blue  of  heaven. 

Almost  in  front  of  the  Manufactures  building  is  the  brick 
ship — the  model  of  a  United  States  cruiser — that  contains  the 
government  naval  exhibit. 

430 


WORLD'S    CONGRESS    AUXILIARY. 

The  World's  Congress  Auxiliary  constitutes  the  intellectual 
and  moral  branch  of  the  exposition.  Tt  is  organized  to  pro- 
vide for  the  presentation,  by  papers  and  discussion,  of  the 
mental  and  moral  status  and  achievements  of  the  human  race. 
Under  its  auspices  a  series  of  congresses  will  be  held  in  Chi- 
cago during  the  progress  of  the  fair,  in  which  will  participate 
the  leading  professional  men  and  women  of  the  world.  The 
congresses  will  meet  in  the  permanent  Memorial  Art  Palace, 
which  the  Chicago  Art  Institute  and  the  exposition  directory 
have  erected  on  the  lake  front  at  the  foot  of  Adams  street. 
This  will  contain  two  large  and  several  small  audience  rooms, 
and,  on  occasion,  the  Auditorium  will  also  be  used. 

The  department  of  woman's  progress  will  -hold  the  first 
general  congress  of  representative  women  of  all  countries,  in 
the  middle  of  May.  It  will  be  followed  at  intervals  one  week 
apart  by  the  public  press  congress,  the  department  of  medi- 
cine congress,  the  temperance  congress,  congress  of  the 
department  of  moral  and  social  reform,  and  also  of  com- 
merce and  finance. 

The  department  of  music  includes  the  general  divisions  of 
orchestral  art,  choral  music,  songs  of  the  people,  organ  and 
church  music,  musical  art  and  literature,  musical  criticism  and 
history,  opera  houses  and  music  halls.  The  congress  of  this 
department  will  be  held  during  the  week  commencing  July  3» 
1893. 

The  department  of  literature  includes  the  general  divisions 
of  libraries,  history,  philology,  authors,  folk-lore  and  copy- 
right. The  congress  of  this  department  will  commence  on 
July  10,  1893. 

The  department  of  education  includes  the  general  divisions 
of  higher  institutions  of  learning  and  university  extension; 
public  instruction,  the  kindergarten,  manual  and  art  training, 
business  and  commercial  education,  education  in  civil  law  and 


28 


government,  instruction  of  the  deaf,  education  of  the  blind, 
representative  youth  of  public  schools,  college  and  university 
students,  college  fraternities,  psychology,  experimental  and 
rational,  physical  culture,  domestic  and  economic  education, 
agricultural  education,  authors  and  publishers.  The  con- 
gresses of  these  general  divisions  will  commence  on  July  17, 
1893,  and  will  be  followed  by  the  general  educational  con- 
gress, in  which  all  the  departments  of  education  will  be  prop- 
erly represented. 

The  department  of  engineering  includes  the  general  divis- 
ions of  engineering;  that  of  art  includes  the  general  divisions 
of  architecture,  painting,  sculpture,  decorative  art,  photo- 
graphic art,  government  patronage  of  art.  The  art  congress 
will  begin  July  31,  1893. 

The  department  of  government  includes  the  general  divis- 
ions of  jurisprudence  and  law  reform,  political  and  economic 
reform,  city  government,  executive  administration,  intellectual 
property,  arbitration  and  peace.  Other  congresses  will  be 
held  in  the  department  of  science  and  philosophy,  labor, 
religion,  agriculture  and  public  health,  including  the  general 
divisions  of  sanitary  legislation,  public  health  authorities, 
governmental  administration  in  relation  to  epidemics  and  con- 
tagions, food  inspection  and  other  food  problems. 

FINANCES   OF   THE    FAIR. 

The  value  of  exhibits  at  the  fair  undoubtedly  exceeds  $200,- 
000,000  and  the  cost  of  making  the  display  is  estimated  at 
$60,000,000.  This  sum  includes  the  amount  expended  in  pre- 
paring the  grounds  and  main  buildings,  the  foreign  and  state 
buildings  in  making  the  foreign,  state  and  individual  exhibits 
and  the  general  expenses  of  conducting  the  fair. 

The  last  statement  of  World's  Fair  finances  submitted  before 
the  opening  of  the  gates  on  May  i  was  issued  by  Auditor 
Ackerman,  of  the  local  directory,  April  15.  This  report 

434 


showed  that  up  to  April  i,  1893,  there  were  spent  in  building 
the  fair  $16,708,826.48 — a  sum  equal  to  twice  the  total  cost  of 
building  the  Paris  exposition — and  at  least  $2,000,000  more 
were  spent  during  April.  Of  this  enormous  outlay,  $14,411,- 
506.74  have  gone  into  the  fair  buildings  proper,  while  $2,206,- 
644  were  spent  in  general  expenses,  salaries  and  dedication 
day  expenditures.  Following  are  the  figures  let  on  contracts 
made  for  work  for  the  exposition  proper: 

CONTRACTS    LET.  AMOUNT 

OK  CONTRACT. 

Administration  building $  463,213 

Agricultural  building 058,687 

Galleries  of  fine  arts 737,8 1 1 

Dairy  building 29,308 

Electricity  building 423>35o 

Mines  and  Mining  building 266,530 

Forestry  building 82,018 

Fisheries  building 217,672 

Grounds  and  buildings  office 61,665 

Horticultural  building 298,649 

Machinery  hall  and  boiler  house I>173>897 

Manufactures  and  Liberal  Arts  building 1,727431 

Art  building,  Lake-Front 200,000 

Transportation   building 483,183 

Women's  building 135>399 

Propagating  houses 3,65 1 

Pumping  station 36,736 

Live  Stock  Exhibit  building 62,259 

Filters 20,000 

Fencing 26,144 

Water  and  sewer  pipe  and  laying  same 293,760 

Water  tank  for  locomotive  and  railroad  material 174,863 

Perron  and  train  sheds 54,7'° 

Railway  terminal  station 225,384 

Bridges 57,289 

Grand  fountains 122,300 

Pumping  works,  city  of  Chicago 200,000 

Choral  hall 86,743 

Anthropological  building 85,666 

Installing  tools 7,35° 

Fire  and  police  houses 75,^13 

Police  station,  Hyde  Park 47,5°9 

Fire  hydrants I7,4°° 

436 


AMOUNT 

CONTRACTS  LET.  OF CONTRACT. 

Fire  and  police  alarm  system $  !9,°43 

Hose  and  hose  reels 75,3°5 

Statue  of  Columbus 65,1 12 

Statue  of  Benjamin  Franklin 3,ooo 

Statue  of  the  Republic 9,467 

Sculpture  models  and  statuary 159,39° 

Piers  and  breakwaters 321,565 

Accounting  building 33,290 

Finishing  terraces  and  interior  docking 197,979 

Sewerage  cleansing  works 54,895 

Sewerage  ejectors 66,425 

Ejector  pits  and  stop  gates 25,526 

Roadways  and  sidewalks. . . 193,000 

Roadway  drainage '39,429 

Warehouse  for  packing  cases 35,863 

Rent  of  land 75,000 

Seats  and  band  stands 21,700 

Rubber-covered  wire  and  conductors 75,coo 

Electric  motors 5,5°° 

Electric  light  plant 448,201 

Arc  lights  and  telephone  circuits 213,282 

Board  of  Architects 124,050 

Garbage  crematory 2,341 

Children's  building 22,218 

Shoe  and  Leather  building 89,442 

Boiler  plant 164,184 

Music  hall,  Casino,  and  Peristyle 366,253 

Oil  plant 16,962 

Saw  mill 21 ,794 

Uniforms  for  guards 30,000 

Colonnade  and  Obelisk 98,945 

Elevation  of  Illinois  Central  tracks 200,000 

Temporary  viaducts 28,600 

Fire  boat 7,°5° 

Monastery  La  Rabida t 24,302 

Public  Comfort  Building 26,828 

Launches 12,625 

Runways  and  traveling  cranes 136,500 

Machinery,  belting,  and  shafting 55,753 

Entrances  and  ticket  booths 88,500 

Coloring  and  decorating 158,216 


Total $12,469,201 


437 


In  addition  are  the  costs  of  foreign  and  state  buildings, 
foreign,  state  and  individual  exhibits,  and  of  general  running 
expenses  of  the  fair,  including  police,  fire,  janitor  service,  sal- 
aries, music,  etc. 

Exclusive  of  the  money  spent  by  individual  exhibitors,  the 
following  is  a  statement  of  moneys  raised  for  the  exposi- 
tion : 

Appropriated  by  foreign  governments $  5,675,298.00 

The  compilation  made  by  the  Department  of  Pub- 
licity and  Promotion,  from  all  sources 896,231 .00 

Contributions  by  states  of  the  Union 6,020,850.00 

Original  appropriation   by    United   States    govern- 
ment   1,500,000.00 

Appropriation  by  government  of  five  million  souvenir 

coins 2,500,000.00 

Appropriation  by  government  for  bronze  medals  and 

diplomas 103,000.00 

Appropriation  for  government  board,  1892 408,250.00 

Appropriation  for  government  board,  1893 150,750.00 

Appropriation  for  national  commission,  1891 95,500.00 

Appropriation  for  national  commission,  1892 230,000.00 

Appropriation  for  national  commission,  1893 211,375.00 

Receipts  from  stockholders 5,553,760.80 

City  of  Chicago 5,000,000.00 

Six  per  cent  debenture  bonds,  due  January  i,  1894. .  4,094,500.00 

Gate  receipts  to  April  1 234,853.00 

Interest 88,963.00 

Miscellaneous  receipts 295,504.75 


Grand  Total $33j248)93°-55 

As  the  stockholders  are,  almost  without  exception,  Chica- 
goans,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  city  has  thus  directly  contributed 
$10,553,760.80  to  the  fair,  besides  purchasing  debenture 
bonds  and  paying  an  enormous  amount  of  the  installation 
costs.  At  first  fostered  and  agitated  in  Chicago,  the  great 
enterprise,  although  largely  conducted  under  national  auspices, 
is,  as  these  figures  prove,  essentially  a  Chicago  institution. 


438 


DEDICATION   AND   OPENING   CEREMONIES. 

[Opening  chorus  of  Harriet  Monroe's  "Commemoration  Ode,"  read  and  sung  at  the 
dedicatory  ceremonies,  October  2t,  1892.] 

Columbia  !  Men  beheld  thee  rise 

A  goddess  from  the  misty  sea. 

Lady  of  joy,  sent  from  the  skies, 

The  nations  worshiped  thee. 
Thy  brows  were  flushed  with  dawn's  first  light; 
By  foamy  waves  with  stars  bedight 

Thy  blue  robe  floated  free. 

Now  let  the  sun  ride  high  o'erhead, 

Driving  the  day  from  shore  to  shore. 
His  burning  tread  we  do  not  dread, 

For  thou  art  evermore 
Lady  of  love  whose  smile  shall  bless, 
Whom  brave  deeds  win  to  tenderness, 

Whose  tears  the  loss  restore. 

Lady  of  hope  thou  art.     We  wait 

With  courage  thy  serene  command. 
Through  unknown  seas,  toward  undreamed  fate, 

We  ask  thy  guiding  hand. 
On  !  though  sails  quiver  in  the  gale  ! — 
Thou  at  the  helm,  we  can  not  fail. 

On  to  God's  time-veiled  strand  ! 

Lady  of  beauty  !  thou  shall  win 

Glory  and  power  and  length  of  days. 
The'sun  and  moon  shall  be  thy  kin, 
The  stars  shall  sing  thy  praise. 
All  hail !  we  bring  thee  vows  most  sweet 
To  strew  before  thy  winged  feet. 
Now  onward  be  thy  ways  ! 

The  fair  was  formally  dedicated  October  21,  1892,  and 
opened  May  i,  1893 — each  occasion  being  marked  by  appro- 
priate ceremonies.  Wednesday,  October  19,  there  was  a 
grand  ball,  reception  and  banquet  at  the  Auditorium,  given  in 
honor  of  the  invited  guests — President  Harrison's  cabinet, 
Vice-President  Morton,  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States,  the  foreign  diplomatic  corps,  many  senators  and  mem- 
bers of  the  House  of  Representatives,  ex-President  Hayes,  the 

440 


\ 


governors  of  nearly  all  the  states  and  territories,  with  their 
official  staffs,  many  specially  commissioned  representatives  of 
foreign  countries,  the  high  officers  of  the  army  and  navy,  and 
thousands  of  the  most  distinguished  citizens  of  the  several 
states  of  the  Union. 

Thursday  was  marked  by  an  imposing  civic  parade,  and 
Friday  was  dedication  day  proper. 

One  hundred  thousand  persons  witnessed  the  dedicatory 
exercises  in  Manufactures  and  Liberal  Arts  building. 
Director  General  Davis  opened  the  ceremonies.  He  said: 

LADIES  AND  GENTLEMEN  :  By  virtue  of  my  official  position,  it  is  my  pleasurable 
duty  to  present  the  noted  personages  who,  at  this  hour,  in  their  several  functions,  are  to 
contribute  to  the  exercises  with  which  we  here  dedicate  the  grounds  and  buildings  of  the 
World's  Columbian  Exposition.  Of  the  great  nations  of  the  world,  the  United  States  is 
the  youngest;  our  resources  are  equal  to  those  of  any  other  nation.  Our  sixty  millions 
of  people  are  among  the  most  intelligent,  cultured,  happy  and  prosperous  of  mankind. 
But  what  we  are  and  what  we  possess  as  a  nation  is  not  ours  by  purchase,  nor  by  con- 
quest, but  by  virtue  of  the  rich  heritage  that  was  spread  out  beneath  the  sun  and  stars, 
beneath  the  storms  and  rains  and  dews,  beneath  the  frosts  and  snows,  ages  before  a 
David,  a  Homer,  or  a  Virgil  sang,  or  before  Italy's  humble  and  immortal  son  had 
dreamed  his  dream  of  discovery.  This  rich  heritage  is  ours,  not  by  our  own  might,  not 
even  by  our  own  discovery,  but  ours  by  the  gift  of  the  Infinite.  *  *  *  A  single  cen- 
tury has  placed  this  people  side  by  side  with  the  oldest  and  most  advanced  nations  of 
the  world ;  nations  with  a  history  of  a  thousand  years.  But  in  the  midst  of  our  rejoicing, 
no  American  citizen  should  forget  our  national  starting  point,  and  the  quality  of  the 
manhood  on  which  was  laid  the  very  foundation  of  our  government.  Our  fathers  were 
born  under  foreign  flags.  The  very  best  brain,  and  nerve,  and  muscle,  and  conscience 
of  the  older  governments  found  their  way  to  this  western  continent.  Our  ancestors 
had  the  map  of  the  world  before  them ;  what  wonder  that  they  chose  this  land  for  their 
descendants !  *  *  *  The  World's  Columbian  Exposition  is  the  natural  outgrowth 
of  this  nation's  place  in  history.  Our  continent,  discovered  by  Christopher  Columbus, 
whose  spirits  were  revived  as  his  cause  was  espoused  by  the  generous-hearted  Queen  of 
Spain,  has,  throughout  all  the  years  from  that  time  to  this,  been  a  haven  to  all  who  saw. 
here  the  promise  of  requited  toil,  of  liberty  and  of  peace.  The  ceaseless,  restless  march 
of  civilization,  westward,  ever  westward,  has  reached  and  passed  the  great  lakes  of 
North  America,  and  has  founded  on  their  farthest  shore  the  greatest  city  of  modern 
times.  Chicago,  the  peerless,  has  been  selected  for  the  great  celebration  which  to-day 
gives  new  fire  to  progress,  and  sheds  its  light  upon  ages  yet  to  come.  Established  in  the 
heart  of  this  continent,  her  pulse  throbs  with  the  quickening  cunent  of  our  national  life, 
and  that  this  city  was  selected  as  the  scene  of  this  great  commemorative  festival  was 
the  natural  outgrowth  of  predestined  events.  Here  all  nations  are  to  meet  in  peaceful, 
laudable  emulation  on  the  fields  of  art,  science  and  industry,  on  the  fields  of  research, 
invention  and  scholarship,  and  to  learn  the  universal  value  of  the  discovery  we  com- 
memorate ;  to  learn,  as  could  be  learned  in  no  other  way,  the  nearness  of  man  to  man, 
the  fatherhood  of  God  and  the  brotherhood  of  the  human  race.  This,  ladies  and  gentle- 
men, is  the  exalted  purpose  of  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition.  May  it  be  fruitful  of 
its  aim,  and  of  peace  forever  to  all  the  nations  of  the  earth. 

Following  the  Director  General,  Mayor  Hempstead  Wash- 
burne  delivered  an  address  of  welcome  and  tendered  the  free- 


442 


dom  of  the  city  to  the  guests.  Then  the  Director  of  Works, 
D.  H.  Burnham,  delivered  the  buildings  to  President  Higin- 
botham  of  the  local  directory,  who  in  turn  delivered  them  to 
President  Thomas  W.  Palmer  of  the  National  Commission. 
In  the  absence  of  the  President  of  the  United  States,  Vice- 
President  Levi  P.  Morton  then  formally  declared  the  fair  to  be 


H.  N.  Higinbotham. 

dedicated.  Henry  Watterson,  Chauncey  M.  Depew  and  Mrs. 
Potter  Palmer  also  spoke,  Cardinal  Gibbons  prayed,  and  after 
the  benediction  had  been  spoken,  the  booming  of  the  cannons 
firing  the  national  salute  announced  to  the  world  that  Chicago's 
great  work  was  done,  the  fair  was  dedicated  and  ceased  to  be 
a  local  and  became  an  international  institution. 


443 


On  Monday,  May  i,  1893,  Grover  Cleveland,  President  of 
the  United  States,  formally  opened  the  fair.  An  immense 
crowd,  estimated  at  from  300,000  to  500,000,  filled  the  grounds. 
Spectators  there  were  from  every  country  on  the  globe,  and 
almost  every  country  was  officially  represented.  In  front  of 
the  great  stand  before  the  Administration  building,  where  the 
representatives  of  over  fifty  nations,  the  World's  Fair  officers, 
the  President  and  his  cabinet,  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court,  the  diplomatic  corps  and  other  distinguished  guests  had 
gathered,  there  was  a  great  mass  of  men,  blending  together 
all  the  races  of  humanity  from  orient  and  Occident,  from  north 
and  south,  from  races  new  and  vigorous,  and  from  races  old 
and  disappearing. 

First  came  a  grand  crash  of  martial  music,  when  600  musi- 
cians, at  the  nod  of  Theodore  Thomas,  began  John  R.  Paine's 
"  Columbian  March."  Then  after  a  prayer,  the  reading  of  a 
poem  in  honor  of  Columbus,  and  the  orchestral  overture  of 
Wagner's  "  Rienzi,"  Director  General  Davis  spoke  as  fol- 
lows: 

The  dedication  of  these  grounds  and  buildings  for  the  purpose  of  an  international 
exhibition  took  place  on  October  21  last,  at  which  time  they  were  accepted  for  the  objects 
to  which  they  were  destined  by  the  action  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States. 

This  exposition  is  not  the  conception  of  any  single  mind ;  it  is  not  the  result  of  any 
single  effort ;  but  it  is  the  grandest  conception  of  all  the  minds  and  the  best  obtainable 
result  of  all  the  efforts  put  forth  by  all  the  people  who  have  in  any  manner  contributed 
to  its  creation. 

The  great  commanding  agencies,  through  which  the  government  has  authorized  this 
work  to  proceed,  are  the  National  Commission,  the  corporation  of  the  state  of  Illinois, 
known  as  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition,  consisting  of  forty-five  directors,  and  the 
Board  of  Lady  Managers,  consisting  of  115  women.  To  these  great  agencies,  wisely 
selected  by  Congress,  each  performing  its  special  function,  the  gratitude  of  the  people 
of  this  country  and  the  cordial  recognition  of  all  these  friendly  foreign  representatives 
are  due. 

The  department  of  works  and  its  many  bureaus  of  artists,  architects,  engineers  and 
builders,  have  transformed  these  grounds,  which  twenty-one  months  ago  were  an 
unsightly,  uninviting  and  unoccupied  stretch  of  landscape,  into  the  beauty  and  splendor 
of  to-day.  They  have  conspicuously  performed  their  functions,  and  these  grand  ave- 
nues, these  Venetian  waterways,  the  finished  landscape,  the  fountains  and  sculptures  and 
colonnades,  and  these  grand  palaces  stand  out  as  a  monument  to  their  genius  and 
their  skill,  supplemented  by  the  labor  of  that  great  army  of  skilled  artisans  and  work- 
men, all  citizens  of  this  republic. 

The  chiefs  of  the  great  departments,  who  have  exploited  this  mighty  enterprise  and 
gathered  here  the  exhibits  forming  the  picture  that  is  set  in  this  magnificent  frame,  have 
confirmed  the  wisdom  of  their  selection.  No  state  or  territory  in  the  Union  has  escaped 
their  voice ;  no  land  on  the  globe  that  has  a  language  but  has  been  visited,  and  the 


invitation  of  the  President  of  the  United  States  personally  presented.  Fortunately,  at  the 
inception  of  this  enterprise,  our  government  was,  and  still  is,  at  peace  with  the  whole 
world.  Commissioners  were  sent  to  Europe,  to  Asia,  to  Australia,  British  North  Amer- 
ica, and  to  the  islands  of  the  seas  ;  so  that  to-day  the  whole  world  knows  and  is  familiar 
with  the  significance  of  the  great  peace  festival  we  are  about  to  inaugurate  upon  this 
campus,  and  all  the  nations  join  in  celebrating  the  event  which  it  commemorates. 

This  enclosure,  containing  nearly  seven  hundred  acres,  covered  by  more  than  four 
hundred  structures,  from  the  small  state  pavilion  occupying  an  ordinary  building  site, 
to  the  colossal  structure  of  the  Manufactures  and  Liberal  Arts  building,  covering  over 
thirty  acres,  is  filled  and  crowded  with  a  display  of  the  achievements  and  products  of  the 
mind  and  hand  of  man  such  as  has  never  before  been  presented  to  mortal  vision. 

The  habits,  customs  and  life  of  the  peoples  of  our  own  and  foreign  lands  are  shown 
in  the  variegated  plaisance  ;  those  stately  buildings  on  the  north  are  filled  with  the  his- 
torical treasures  and  natural  products  of  our  several  states.  The  artistic,  characteristic 
and  beautiful  edifices,  the  headquarters  of  foreign  commissions  surrounding  the  gallery 
of  fine  arts,  which  in  itself  will  be  an  agreeable  surprise  to  the  American  beholder,  con- 
stitute the  grand  central  zone  of  social  and  friendly  amenities  among  the  different 
peoples  of  the  earth.  *  *  * 

To  the  foreign  nations  who  have  a  representation  upon  these  grounds  never  before 
witnessed  at  any  exposition,  as  shown  by  the  grand  exhibits  they  have  brought  here,  and 
the  hundreds  of  official  representatives  of  foreign  governments  who  are  present  on  this 
occasion,  we  bow  in  grateful  thanks.  More  than  $6,000,000  have  been  officially  appro- 
priated for  these  commissions  in  furtherance  of  their  participation  in  the  exposition. 
The  great  nations  of  Europe  and  their  dependencies  are  all  represented  upon  these 
grounds.  The  governments  of  Asia  and  of  Africa  and  the  republics  of  the  western 
hemisphere,  with  but  few  exceptions,  are  here  represented. 

To  the  citizens  and  corporation  of  the  city  of  Chicago  who  have  furnished  $11,000,000 
as  a  contribution,  and  in  addition  have  loaned  the  management  $5,000,000  more,  are  due 
the  grateful  acknowledgement  of  our  own  people,  and  of  all  the  honored  guests  who 
share  with  us  the  advantages  of  this  great  international  festival. 

To  the  tens  of  thousands  of  exhibitors  who  have  contributed  on  a  larger  amount 
than  all  others  combined,  we  are  under  the  deepest  obligations  for  their  interest  and 
co-operation. 

To  the  women  of  Chicago  and  our  great  land,  whose  prompt,  spontaneous  and 
enthusiastic  co-operation  in  our  work  turned  the  eyes  of  the  world  towards  the  exposition 
as  toward  a  new  star  of  the  east— an  inspiration  for  womanhood  everywhere — we  extend 
our  cordial  and  unstinted  recognition. 

It  is  our  hope  that  this  great  exposition  may  inaugurate  a  new  era  of  moral  and 
material  progress,  and  our  fervent  aspiration  that  the  association  of  the  nations  here  may 
secure  not  only  warmer  and  stronger  friendships,  but  lasting  peace  throughout  the 
world. 

The  grand  concerted  illustration  of  modern  progress  which  is  here  presented  for  the 
encouragement  of  art,  of  science,  of  industry,  of  commerce,  has  necessitated  an  expendi- 
ture, including  the  outlay  of  our  exhibitors,  largely  in  excess  of  $100,000,000.  We  have 
given  it  our  constant  thought,  our  most  devoted  service,  our  best  energy  ;  and  now,  in 
.'.his  central  city  of  this  great  republic  on  the  continent  discovered  by  Columbus,  it  only 
remains  for  you,  Mr.  President,  if  in  your  opinion  the  exposition  here  presented  is  com- 
mensurate in  dignity  with  what  the  world  shoul  1  expect  of  our  great  country,  to  direct 
that  it  shall  be  opened  to  the  public,  and  when  you  touch  this  magic  key,  the  ponderous 
machinery  will  start  in  its  revolutions  and  the  activities  of  this  exposition  will  begin. 

When  the  Director  General  had  finished  speaking,  Presi- 
dent Cleveland  arose  and  said:  "I  am  here  to  join  my 
fellow-citizens  in  the  congratulations  which  betit  this  occasion. 
Surrounded  by  the  stupendous  results  of  American  enter- 

445 


prise  and  activity  and  in  view  of  magnificent  evidences  of 
American  skill  and  intelligence,  we  need  not  fear  that  these 
congratulations  will  be  exaggerated.  We  stand  to-day  in  the 
presence  of  the  oldest  nations  of  the  world  and  point  to  the 
great  achievements  here  exhibited,  asking  no  allowance  on 
the  score  of  youth.  The  enthusiasm  with  which  we  contem- 
plate our  work  intensifies  the  warmth  of  the  greeting  we 
extend  to  those  who  have  come  from  foreign  lands  to  illustrate 
with  us  the  growth  and  progress  of  human  endeavor  in  the 
direction  of  a  higher  civilization.  We  who  believe  that 
popular  education  and  the  stimulation  of  the  best  impulses  of 
our  citizens  lead  the  way  to  a  realization  of  the  proud  national 
destiny  which  our  faith  promises,  gladly  welcome  the  oppor- 
tunity here  afforded  us  to  see  the  results  accomplished  by 
efforts  which  have  been  exerted  longer  than  ours  in  the  field 
of  man's  improvements,  while  in  appreciative  return  we 
exhibit  the  unparalleled  advancement  and  wonderful  accom- 
plishments of  a  young  nation,  and  present  the  triumphs  of  a 
vigorous,  self-reliant  and  independent  people.  We  have  built 
these  splendid  edifices,  but  we  have  also  built  the  magnificent 
fabric  of  a  popular  government,  whose  grand  proportions  are 
seen  throughout  the  world.  We  have  made  and  here  gath- 
ered together  objects  of  use  and  beauty,  the  products  of 
American  skill  and  invention;  but  we  have  also  made  men 
who  rule  themselves.  It  is  an  exalted  mission  in  which 
we  and  our  guests  from  other  lands  are  engaged,  as  we 
co-operate  in  the  inauguration  of  an  enterprise  devoted  to 
human  enlightenment;  and,  in  the  undertaking  we  here  enter 
upon,  we  exemplify  in  the  noblest  sense  the  brotherhood  of 
nations.  Let  us  hold  fast  to  the  meaning  that  underlies  this 
ceremony,  and  let  us  not  lose  the  impressiveness  of  this  mo- 
ment. As  by  a  touch  the  machinery  that  gives  life  to  this  vast 
exposition  is  set  in  motion,  so  at  the  same  instant  let  our  hopes 
and  aspirations  awaken  forces  which  in  all  time  to  come  shall 
influence  the  welfare,  the  dignity  and  the  freedom  of  mankind." 


With  the  concluding  words,  President  Cleveland  touched 
the  electric  switchboard  and  inaugurated  the  World's  Colum- 
bian Exposition.  It  was  a  grand  transformation  scene.  The 
great  machinery  was  set  in  motion,  thousands  of  flags  and 
silken  banners  flashed  and  floated  on  the  breeze,  great  jets  of 
water  burst  forth  from  silent  fountains,  the  drapery  that  had 
hidden  the  great  golden  statue  of  the  Republic  fell,  cannons 
thundered,  bells  pealed,  a  chime  of  steam  whistles  blew,  and 
then  the  great  orchestra  and  the  greater  chorus  gave  Handel's 
"  Hallelujah  Chorus,"  and  the  fair  was  open. 

During  the  afternoon  the  Woman's  building  was  formally 
dedicated  by  Bertha  Honore  Palmer,  president  of  the  Board 
of  Lady  Managers.  After  an  elaborate  musical  and  literary 
program,  Mrs.  Palmer  spoke  as  follows: 

The  moment  of  fruition  has  arrived.  Hopes,  which  for  more  than  two  years  have 
gradually  been  gaining  strength  and  definiteness,  have  now  become  realities.  To-day 
the  exposition  opens  its  gates.  On  this  occasion  of  the  formal  opening  of  the  Woman's 
building,  the  Board  of  Lady  Managers  is  singularly  fortunate  in  having  the  honor  to 
welcome  distinguished  official  representatives  of  many  of  the  able  foreign  committees 
and  of  the  state  boards  which  have  so  effectively  co-operated  with  it  in  accomplishing 
results  now  disclosed  to  the  world. 

We  have  traveled  together  a  hitherto  untrodden  path;  have  been  subjected  to 
tedious  delays  and  overshadowed  by  dark  clouds,  which  threatened  disaster  to  our  enter- 
prise. We  have  been  obliged  to  march  with  peace  offerings  in  our  hands  lest  hostile 
motives  be  ascribed  to  us.  Our  burdens  have  been  greatly  lightened,  however,  by  the 
spontaneous  sympathy  and  aid  which  have  reached  us  from  women  in  every  part  of  the 
world,  and  which  have  proved  an  added  incentive  and  inspiration 

It  is  not  our  province,  however,  to  discuss  these  weighty  questions,  except  in  so  far 
as  they  affect  compensation  paid  to  wage-earners,  and  more  especially  that  paid  to 
women  and  children. 

Of  all  existing  forms  of  injustice,  there  is  none  so  cruel  and  inconsistent  as  is  the 
position  in  which  women  are  placed  with  regard  to  self-maintenance ;  the  calm  ignoring 
of  their  rights  and  responsibilities  which  has  gone  on  for  centuries.  If  the  economic 
conditions  are  hard  for  men  to  meet,  subjected  as  they  are  to  the  constant  weeding  out 
of  the  less  expert  and  steady  hands  (who  are  thereby  plunged  into  an  abyss  of  misery), 
it  is  evident  that  women,  thrown  upon  their  own  resources,  have  a  frightful  struggle  to 
endure,  especially  as  they  have  always  to  contend  against  a  public  sentiment  which  dis- 
countenances their  seeking  industrial  employments  as  a  means  of  livelihood. 

The  cry  which  exists  among  conservative  people  that  the  sphere  of  woman  is  her 
home ;  that  it  is  unfemininc,  even  monstrous,  for  her  to  wish  to  take  a  place  beside,  or  to 
compete  with  men  in  the  various  lucrative  industries,  tells  heavily  against  her,  for  manu- 
facturers and  producers  take  advantage  of  it  to  disparage  her  work  and  obtain  her  ser- 
vices for  a  nominal  price,  thus  profiting  largely  by  the  necessities  and  helplessness  of 
their  victim.  That  so  many  should  cling  to  respectable  occupations  while  starving  in  fol- 
lowing them  and  should  refuse  to  yield  to  discouragement  and  despair,  shows  a  high 
quality  of  steadfastness  and  principle.  These  are  the  real  heroines  of  life,  whose  handi- 
work we  are  proud  to  install  in  the  exposition,  because  it  has  been  produced  in  factories, 

447 


ps  and  studios  under  the  most  adverse  conditions,  and  with  the  most  sublime 
patience  and  endurance. 

Men  of  the  finest  and  most  chivalric  type,  who  have  poetic  theories  about  the  sanctity 
of  the  home  and  the  refining,  elevating  influence  of  woman  in  it— theories  which  we  have 
inherited  from  the  days  of  romance  and  chivalry,  and  which  we  wish  might  prevail  for- 
ever— these  men  have  asked  many  times  whether  the  Board  of  Lady  Managers  think  it 
well  to  promote  a  sentiment  which  may  tend  to  destroy  the  home,  by  encouraging 
occupations  for  women  which  take  them  out  of  it.  We  feel,  therefore,  obliged  to  state 
that  in  our  opinion,  every  woman  who  is  presiding  over  a  happy  home  is  fulfilling  her 
highest  and  truest  function,  and  could  not  be  lured  from  it  by  temptations  offered  by 
factories  or  studios.  Would  that  the  eyes  of  these  idealists  could  be  thoroughly  opened 
that  they  might  see,  not  the  fortunate  few  of  a  favored  class,  with  homes  they  possibly 
are  in  daily  contact  with,  but  the  general  status  of  the  labor  market  throughout  the  world, 
and  the  relation  to  it  of  svomen.  They  might  be  astonished  to  learn  that  the  conditions 
under  which  the  vast  majority  of  the  "gentler  sex"  are  living  are  not  so  ideal  as  they 
assume,  that  each  is  not  "  dwelling  in  a  home  of  which  she  is  the  queen,  with  a  manly  and 
loving  arm  to  shield  her  from  rough  contact  with  life." 

Because  of  the  impossibility  of  reconciling  their  theories  with  the  stern  facts,  they 
might  possibly  consent  to  forgive  the  offense  of  widows  with  dependent  children,  and  of 
wives  of  drunkards  and  criminals  who  so  far  forget  the  high  standard  established  for 
them  as  to  attempt  to  earn  for  themselves  daily  bread,  lacking  which  they  must  perish. 
The  necessity  for  their  work  under  present  conditions  is  too  evident  and  too  urgent  to  be 
questioned.  They  must  work  or  they  must  starve.  *  *  *  * 

We  observe  that  there  are  two  classes  of  the  community  who  wish  to  restrain  women 
from  actual  participation  in  the  business  of  the  world,  and  that  each  gives,  apparently, 
very  strong  reasons  in  support  of  its  views.  These  are,  first,  the  idealists  already  men- 
tioned, who  hold  the  opinion  that  woman  should  be  tenderly  guarded  and  cherished 
within  the  sacred  precincts  of  the  home  which  alone  is  her  sphere  of  action.  Second, 
certain  political  economists,  with  whom  may  be  ranged  most  of  the  men  engaged  in  the 
profitable  pursuit  of  the  industries  of  the  world,  who  object  to  the  competition  that  would 
result  from  the  participation  of  women,  because  they  claim  it  would  reduce  a  general 
scale  of  wages  paid  and  lessen  the  earning  power  of  men,  who  require  all  their  present 
income  to  support  their  families. 

Plausible  as  these  theories  are,  we  cannot  accept  them  without  pausing  to  inquire 
what  then  would  become  of  all  women  but  the  very  few  who  have  independent  fortunes 
or  are  the  happy  wives  of  men  able  and  willing  to  support  them.  The  interests  of  prob- 
ably three-fourths  of  the  women  in  the  world  would  be  sacrificed.  Are  they  to  be  allowed 
to  starve,  or  to  rush  to  self-destruction  ?  If  not  permitted  to  work,  what  course  is  open 
to  them?  Our  oriental  neighbors  have  seen  the  logic  of  the  situation  far  more  clearly 
than  we,  and  have  been  consistent  enough  to  meet  it  without  shrinking  from  heroic 
measures.  The  question  is  happily  solved  in  some  countries  by  the  practice  of  poly- 
gamy, which  allows  every  man  to  maintain  as  many  wives  as  his  means  permits.  In 
others  etiquette  requires  that  a  newly-made  widow  be  burned  on  the  funeral  pyre  with 
her  husband's  body,  while  the  Chinese  take  the  precaution  to  drown  surplus  female 
children.  It  would  seem  that  any  of  these  methods  is  more  logical  and  less  cruel  than 
the  system  we  pursue  of  permitting  the  entire  female  population  to  live,  but  making  it 
impossible  for  those  born  to  poverty  to  maintain  themselves  in  comfort,  because  they 
are  hampered  by  a  caste  feeling  almost  as  strong  as  that  ruling  Inr'.ia,  which  will  not  per- 
mit them  to  work  on  equal  terms  with  men.  These  unhappy  members  of  an  inferior 
class  must  be  content  to  remain  in  penury,  living  on  the  crumbs  that  fall  from  the  tables 
spread  from  those  of  another  and  higher  caste.  This  relative  position  has  been  exacted 
on  the  one  side,  accepted  on  the  other  side ;  it  has  been  considered  by  each  an  inexo- 
rable law.  We  shrink  with  horror  from  the  unjust  treatment  of  child-widows  and  other 
unfortunates  on  the  other  sida  of  the  globe,  but  our  own  follies  and  inconsistencies  are 
too  close  to  our  eyes  for  us  to  see  them  in  proper  perspective. 

Sentimentalists  should  have  reduced  their  theories  to  set  terms  and  applied  them. 


448 


They  have  had  ample  opportunity  and  time  to  provide  means  by  which  helpless  women 
could  be  cherished,  protected  and  removed  from  the  storms  and  stress  of  life.  Women 
could  have  asked  nothing  better.  We  have  no  respect  for  a  theory  which  touches  only 
the  favored  few  who  do  not  need  this  protection  and  leaves  unaided  the  great  mass  it 
has  assisted  to  push  into  the  mire.  Babble  it  not,  therefore,  until  it  can  be  uttered  not 
only  in  polite  drawing-rooms,  but  also  in  factories  and  workshops,  without  a  blush  of 
shame  for  its  weakness  and  inefficiency. 

But  the  sentimentalists  again  exclaim:  ''Would  you  have  women  step  down  from 
their  pedestal  to  enter  practical  life ': "  Yes,  a  thousand  times,  yes.  If  we  can  really 
find,  after  a  careful  search,  any  women  mounted  upon  pedestals,  we  should  willingly 
ask  them  to  step  down  in  order  that  they  may  meet  and  help  to  uplift  their  sisters. 
Freedom  and  justice  for  all  are  infinitely  more  to  be  desired  than  pedestals  for  a  few, 
I  beg  leave  to  state  that,  personally,  I  am  not  a  believer  in  the  pedestal  theory — never 
having  seen  an  example  of  it— and  that  I  always  suspect  the  motives  of  any  one 
advancing  it.  Is  it  not  the  natural  and  fine  relation  between  husband  and  wife,  or 
between  friends,  that  they  should  stand  side  by  side,  the  fine  qualities  of  each  supple- 
menting and  assisting  those  of  the  other  ?  Men  naturally  cherish  high  ideals  of  woman- 
hood, as  women  do  of  manliness  and  strength.  These  ideals  will  dwell  with  the  human 
race  forever  without  our  striving  to  preserve  and  protect  them. 

If  we  now  look  at  the  question  from  the  economic  standpoint,  and  aside  for  good 
and  logical  reasons,  that  women  should  be  kept  out  of  industrial  fields  in  order  that  they 
may  leave  the  harvest  for  men,  whose  duty  it  is  to  provide  for  women  and  children,  then, 
by  all  laws  of  justice  and  equity,  these  latter  should  be  provided  for  by  their  natural 
protectors,  and,  if  deprived  of  them,  should  become  wards  of  the  state  and  be  main- 
tained in  honor  and  comfort.  The  acceptance  of  even  this  doctrine  of  tardy  justice 
would  not,  however,  I  feel  sure,  be  welcomed  by  the  women  of  to-day,  who,  having  had 
a  taste  of  independence,  will  never  relinquish  it.  They  have  no  desire  to  be  helpless 
and  dependent.  Having  the  full  use  of  their  faculties,  they  rejoice  in  exercising  them. 
This  is  entirely  in  conformity  with  the  trend  of  modern  thought,  which  is  in  the  direction 
of  establishing  proper  respect  for  human  individuality  and  the  right  of  self-develop- 
ment. Our  highest  aim  now  is  to  train  each  to  find  happiness  in  the  full  and  healthy 
exercise  of  the  gifts  bestowed  by  a  generous  nature.  Ignorance  is  too  expensive  and 
wasteful  to  be  tolerated.  We  cannot  afford  to  lose  the  reserve  power  of  any  individual. 

We  advocate,  therefore,  the  thorough  education  and  training  of  woman  to  fit  her  to 
meet  whatever  fate  life  may  bring,  not  only  to  prepare  her  for  the  factory  and  workshopi 
for  the  professions  and  arts,  but,  more  important  than  all  else,  to  prepare  her  for  pre- 
siding in  the  home.  It  is  for  this,  the  highest  field  of  woman's  effort,  that  the  broadest 
training  and  greatest  preparation  are  required.  The  illogical,  extravagant,  whimsical 
unthrifty  mother  and  housekeeper  belongs  to  the  dark  ages ;  she  has  no  place  in  our 
present  era  of  enlightenment.  No  course  of  study  is  too  elaborate,  no  amount  of 
knowledge  and  culture  too  abundant  to  meet  the  actual  requirements  of  the  wife  and 
mother  in  dealing  with  the  interests  committed  to  her  hands. 

Realizing  that  woman  can  never  hope  to  receive  the  proper  recompense  for  her 
services  until  her  usefulness  and  success  are  not  only  demonstrated  but  fully  understood 
and  acknowledged,  we  have  taken  advantage  of  the  opportunity  presented  by  the 
exposition  to  bring  together  such  evidences  of  her  skill  in  the  various  industries,  arts  and 
professions  as  may  convince  the  world  that  ability  is  not  a  matter  of  sex.  Urged  by 
necessity,  she  has  demonstrated  that  her  powers  are  the  same  as  her  brother's,  and  that 
like  encouragement  and  fostering  care  may  develop  her  to  an  equal  point  of  usefulness. 
The  fact  that  the  Woman's  building  is  so  small  that  it  can  hold  but  a  tithe  of  the  beauti- 
ful objects  offered  has  been  a  great  disadvantage.  The  character  of  the  exhibits  and 
the  high  standard  attained  by  most  of  them  serve,  therefore,  only  as  an  index  of  the 
quality  and  range  of  the  material  from  which  we  have  drawn 

Japan,  under  the  guidance  of  its  liberal  and  intelligent  empress,  has  promptly  and 
cordially  promoted  our  plans.  Her  Majesty,  the  Queen  of  Siam,  has  sent  a  special 
delegate  with  instructions  that  she  put  herself  under  our  leadership  and  learn  what. 

29 

449 


industrial  and  educational  advantages  are  open  to  women  in  other  countries,  so  that 
Siam  may  adopt  such  measures  as  will  elevate  the  condition  of  her  women. 

The  exposition  will  thus  benefit  women,  not  alone  by  means  of  the  material  objects 
brought  together,  but  there  will  be  a  more  lasting  and  permanent  result  through  the 
interchange  of  thought  and  sympathy  among  influential  and  leading  women  of  all 
countries,  now  for  the  first  time  working  together  with  a  common  purpose  and  an  estab- 
lished means  of  communication.  Government  recognition  and  sanction  give  to  these 
committees  of  women  official  character  and  dignity.  Their  work  has  been  magnificently 
successful,  and  the  reports  which  will  be  made  of  the  conditions  found  to  exist  will  be 
placed  on  record  as  public  documents  among  the  archives  of  every  country.  Realizing 
the  needs  and  the  responsibilities  of  the  hour  and  that  this  will  be  the  first  official  utter- 
ance of  women  in  behalf  of  women,  we  shall  weigh  well  our  words — words  which  should 
be  so  judicious  and  convincing  that  hereafter  they  may  be  treasured  among  the  happy 
influences  which  made  possible  new  and  better  conditions. 

We  rejoice  in  the  possession  of  this  beautiful  building  in  which  we  meet  to-day;  in 
its  delicacy,  symmetry  and  strength.  We  honor  our  architect  and  the  artists  who  have 
not  only  given  their  hands,  but  their  hearts  and  their  genius  to  its  decoration.  For  it, 
women  in  every  part  of  the  world  have  been  exerting  their  efforts  and  talents;  looms 
have  wrought  their  most  delicate  fabrics;  the  needle  has  flashed  in  the  hands  of  fair 
maidens  under  tropical  suns ;  the  lacemaker  has  bent  over  her  cushion  weaving  her  most 
artful  web;  the  brush  and  chisel  have  sought  to  give  form  and  reality  to  the  visions 
haunting  the  brain  of  the  artist;  all  have  wrought  with  the  thought  of  making  our 
building  worthy  to  serve  its  great  end ;  we  thank  them  all  for  their  successful  efforts. 

The  eloquent  president  of  the  commission  last  October  dedicated  the  great  exposi- 
tion to  humanity.  We  now  dedicate  the  Woman's  building  to  an  elevated  womanhood, 
knowing  that  by  so  doing  we  shall  best  serve  the  cause  of  humanity. 


FORMER   FAIRS. 

There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  World's  Colum- 
bian Exposition  will  far  outshine  all  preceding  world's  fairs. 
The  number  of  acres  under  roof  is  equal  to  that  of  Paris  in 
1889,  Philadelphia  in  1876  and  Vienna  in  1873  combined. 
There  are  more  exhibitors,  more  interesting  and  numerous 
exhibits,  finer  buildings,  more  spacious  and  beautiful  grounds. 

In  London,  in  1851,  there  were  6,039,195  visitors;  in  Paris, 
in  1855,  there  were  5,162,330  visitors;  in  London,  in  1862, 
6,250,000  visitors;  in  Paris,  in  1867,  10,200,000;  in  Vienna, 
in  1873,  7,254,687;  in  Philadelphia,  in  1876,  9,910,966;  in 
Paris,  in  1878,  16,000,000,  and  in  Paris,  in  1889,  28,149,353 
visitors.  The  largest  attendance  any  single  day  in  Philadel- 
phia was  274,919,  and  in  Paris,  1889,  400,000.  The  total 
outlay  for  buildings  and  grounds  in  Paris  in  1889  was 
$8,300,000 — in  Chicago  it  will  exceed  twice  that  amount,  and 
it  is  to  be  assumed  that  the  attendance  will  be  in  accordance 

450 


with  this  increased  expenditure.  The  fair  has  aroused  the 
greatest  interest  among  the  people,  not  only  of  the  United 
States,  but  also  of  the  whole  world.  But  more  interesting  to 
the  visitor  from  abroad  than  even  the  beauties  and  splendor 
of  the  White  City  in  Jackson  Park,  will  be  the  development 
and  progress  of  a  typical  American  city  as  exemplified  in 
Chicago,  the  wonder  city  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Michigan. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS-URBANA 


